Rosa Valderrama
The Kingdom of Pergamum, situated in modern-day Turkey approximately 85 kilometers north of Izmir and 25 kilometers east of the Aegean Sea, played a significant role in the Ancient Mediterranean stage. In 281 B.C. when Lysimachus, who had appropriated Western Asia Minor as a successor of Alexander the Great, was defeated by Seleucus of Syria, Philataerus whom he had appointed to direct his fortress perched on the rocky terrain over the Caicus Valley seized his chance to secure the fortress for himself.
Philataerus was succeeded by his nephew Eumenes who secured the fortress by driving back the Galatians, European Celts settled in north-central Anatolia by the Ionians. He then declared independence for the Kingdom of Pergamum.
The Attalids of Pergamum built an impressive metropolis boasting beautiful temples, roads, a library rivaling that of Alexander's in Egypt, and even a school of medicine founded in the fourth century BC , the Asclepeion, which survived over the centuries and continued as a spa into the second century after Christ, attracting all sorts of travelers and patients from the known world.
Aside from their own city, the Attalids ruled over a vast portion of Western Asia Minor, modeling its governing on that of their city. Attalus I allied his kingdom to both Rome and Rhodes and was duly rewarded for this astute maneuver with more land.
The Pergamenes were active in trade and commerce as well. They prospered in agriculture and mined silver. Their textile industry flourished, and they invented parchment, charta Pergamena, to compete with Egyptian papyrus. They reaped the benefits of their success and built their reputation by contributing to the Hellenic cause, dedicating various temples in Athens.
In the second century BC events led to the bequest of the Kingdom to the Roman Republic. Eumenes II and his brothers were faithful in their support of Rome in the third Macedonian War as they joined forces with Thrace to attack Macedonia from the east. Rome abused of Pergamum's loyalty, and even insulted Eumenes several times, jelous and fearful of Pergamum's growing influence and power in Asia Minor.
Eumenes returned to Pergamum, but his brother Attalus remained to prove himself an indispensable help to the Romans in their naval defeat of Perseus. Both Polybius and Livy encouraged speculation and hinted at shady dealings between Perseus and Eumenes, accusations which proved unsubstantiated.
The dealings between Pergamum and the Roman Republic remained shaky, even under the supervision of the very diplomatic Attalus II, Eumenes' brother. By the time Attalus III succeeded his father, Rome continued to acquire power and land throughout the known world and became increasingly hostile to the Pergamene threat in Asia Minor.
Upon his death in 133 BC , Attalus III willed his kingdom to the Roman Empire. The Romans were slow to incorporate and order the governing of this vast bequest, even though Tiberius Gracchus was quick to parcel the money from these holdings for his agrarian reforms.
A threat to the Roman appropriation had to be quelled when Aristonicus, claiming Eumenes II as his father, lead an uprising of the poor of the city after being rejected by the Greek allies to wrest control from Rome. Aristonicus fought a valiant cause, his rebel army proved strong and enjoyed several victories before he was captured and his army later disbanded.
Pergamum was granted its freedom of sorts by the governor of Asia, Publius Servilius Isauricus, who had taken steps in the senate to protect the provinces from excessive advantage by Roman capitalists. Servilius was a distinguished politician who had served in conjunction with Ceasar as consul in 48 BC, and he received many honors when he declared Pergamum a democracy.
Although Pergamum was free to govern itself, it became dependent on Rome to protect its city as well as keep its distance. Pergamenes were aware Rome could strip them of their independence whenever so inclined.
Pergamum seemed to have more influence
on Rome than vice versa. Pergamum was completely Hellenistic in
culture upon its appropriation, a culture which Rome prized and
imitated, and Pergamum became the capital of the East for the
Imperial Cult. Under Attalid rule, Zeus and Asclepius were
worshipped, and in 29 BC Augustus allowed the Pergamenes to build
a temple in his honor which became the center for his worship in
Asia Minor.
Both Trajan and Hadrian contributed to Pergamum, renovating temples in their honor, and Pergamum remained a mecca of culture and beauty for the surrounding areas of Asia Minor, especially for those interested in medicine who could visit the Asclepeion and other spas. Two ancient sources who wrote of the Asclepeion, Aelius Aristides and Galen of the second century after Christ, laud its virtues and restorative powers.
Pergamum passed from a kingdom to the Roman province of Mysia then to the province of Asia before it was deemed a democracy under the hegemony of the Roman Empire, but its culture never failed to thrive, surviving every upheaval.
Bunson, Matthew. Encyclopedia of The Roman Empire. New York: Facts On File, 1994.
A brief entry on Pergamum can be found here containing pertinent facts and a starting point for further research.
Errington, R. M. The Dawn of Empire. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1972.
This book begins with Rome in 264 BC and follows the history of her conquests until 146 BC. This should prove very useful for background information. Also Kings Attalus I, II, and III are frequently cited.
Jones, A. H. M. The Cities of The Eastern Roman Provinces. 2nd ed. London: Clarendon Press, 1971.
This book discusses the Greek influence on the cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces as well as the extent and effect of their Romanization. It contains a whole chapter on Asia in which Pergamum is mentioned throughout.
Magie, David. Roman Rule in Asia Minor. 2 vols. New York: Arno Press, 1975.
The first chapter in this book, thirty-one pages long, is titled "The Bequest of Attalus." The book deals with the expansion of the Roman Empire in Asia Minor and its ramifications until the third century after Christ.
McShane, Roger B. The Foreign Policy of the Attalids of Pergamum. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1964.
Although this book focuses on the Kingdom of Pergamum before the Roman acquisition, it provides an in-depth scenario of the workings of Pergamum in the ancient Mediterranean World. The last chapter is titled "Roman Appropriation of The Attalid Alliance."
Miller, Helen Hill. Bridge To Asia: The Greeks in the Eastern Mediterranean. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1967.
This book provides ample background for the Attalid Kingdom and the extent of its Hellenization. It also has a detailed description of the Asclepeion as well as the other great temples of Pergamum.
Mommsen, Theador. The Provinces of The Roman Empire. Vol 1. Translated by William P. Dickson. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1906.
With a chapter devoted to Asia Minor and a detailed map, this book serves as a great point of departure to begin further research.
Sherwin-White, A. N. Roman Foreign Policy in the East. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983.
This book covers Roman Foreign Policy in the East from 168 BC to AD 1, covering the period after the Roman acquisition of Pergamum.
Stillwell, Richard, William L. MacDonald and Marian Holland McAllister eds. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976.
A long, descriptive entry on the city of Pergamum is offered in this encyclopedia filled with a detailed portrait of the architecture, economy, religious life, and every day functioning of the metropolis.
