Swimming Sensory Integration

I know many of you expect to read about elite swimming training on Swimming Science. If you are only here to read about elite swimming, this post may not be for you. However, today's guest post is an amazing post on an under appreciated topic: sensory integration. Many of you have heard of autism or children being on the spectrum. This is one type of condition that benefits from swimming and sensory integration. If you are truly interested in swimming and how swimming can help many different people, this post is for you, enjoy! 

-John Mullen

Jump into your suit, grab your coffee and leave for work! This daily ritual takes on a very literal meaning if you choose to work in the water with children on the spectrum. Many of us have experienced the sensory seeking child who loves the pool. 

Let’s talk about this phenomenon first. 

The hydrostatic pressure of the water provides a blanket of deep pressure to the child’s largest organ:  the skin. Because she is in a swim suit, the skin is exposed to the viscous fluid, giving CNS messages about where the body is in space. Unique properties of the water allow children to work on developmental skills such as crawling, walking, rolling and jumping. Buoyancy can assist, support or resist, depending on the therapy goal. The child who likes his bath and has had positive experiences in the pool will be highly motivated to learn in the aquatic environment. Motor planning, self-regulation, speech, oral motor control, strength and coordination are just a few areas that are likely to improve as a result of therapy in the water.

A typical scenario may be the child who arrives shaking his hands, walking on his toes and diverting his gaze, but leaves the session organized and ready for the next routine. Often, children of all abilities are scheduled for academic, behavior and OT/PT/SLP following a pool session because of their improved ability to engage and participate.

When a child feels happy and confident in the water, it is time to increase the demand by adding a partner. This provides the opportunity to incorporate social interaction and interpersonal skill acquisition. Children can copy each other, trade toys, offer ‘high fives’ to one another and work together while talking, pointing and using gestures for play. Even better, when the pool activities are well established, a third child could be added. The result is a group of three children who are having fun while working on a variety of skills: vestibular, proprioception, social interaction, motor planning, core strengthening, re-patterning of reflexes, respiration, cognitive skills and much more. Often, this small group provides a bridge to genuine leisure activity, a swim class in which they are integrating with their peers.

Let’s switch gears and talk about the opposite type of child. Your family wants to swim but no matter what you try, your little buddy is clinging for life around your neck, screaming, "Take me to where I can touch my feet." Gravity is gone and he is not staying in for long. Techniques for grounding and helping your child understand the absence of gravity will most likely get those fingernails out of your neck. Sequenced systematic activities with weights or canvas shoes can therapeutically provide the feedback that avoids the fight or flight response. Parents and other people working in the water with this child need to accept that once a fight or flight response begins, neurochemistry kicks in. It is as if someone is following you and you feel like you are about to get robbed. You feel your body heating up, preparing to defend. This is the feeling your child is experiencing! No one can learn to swim, enjoy the water or participate in therapy in this mode. How do we help him to learn where his body is in space? The properties of the water are just as powerful for this child, but require different ritual, routine, social stories and firm progression.

Some kids really want to be in the water but their system works against them. Giving the vestibular and proprioceptive systems the input they need to guide the progression, is key to their success. Cadence, rhythm and timing of movement, is crucial to arousing the necessary centers for cooperation. Whether the avoiding response is severe or mild it is important to work with someone who understands what this adverse response is all about.

One child may need one OT or PT session with the appropriate progression; others may need several. For example, a child recently attended a set of 6 private swim sessions at a private swim school. This nonverbal, 7-year-old, child with autism endured 2 sets of these sessions (12 times). When the instruction did not work, the parents were told the swim instructor had done everything they knew how to do. This child is a perfect candidate for a different approach with a trained aquatic therapist who understands the properties of the water and how they affect a child with sensory processing dysfunction.

Another child may have attended years of swimming but has a specific issue, i.e., putting her face in the water. An experienced aquatic therapist can help her overcome this sensory aversion of water splashing on her face, alleviating her fear of submerging.

An eclectic treatment approach encompassing many different frames of reference in the water will result in children who not only enjoy the water but are able to participate in a leisure/recreation activity with peers. Brainstorming pool sessions regarding the incorporation of approaches such as reflex re-patterning, play project techniques, sensory integration and NDT result in individualized therapeutic responses to each child’s specificity. Working as OT/PT teams, aquatic therapists examine movement, experiment with equipment and handling while sharing ideas and observations. This cooperative approach is crucial for the creation of the aquatic tool box and learned tricks of the trade that will help children enjoy the water. The pool provides options for private, semi-private and small group therapy.

Children can work parallel with noodles and dumbbells, retrieving objects while lying on their bellies, then sitting up and giving them to the therapist, or throwing them on the command of, "ready, set, go!" Eventually, this parallel play evolves into the kids trading objects. Small groups form when the goals change.

A parent may want strength, coordination, endurance and social skills as they relate to the swimming experience for their child. Together, a swim instructor and therapist can provide the specific combination of activities that will improve motor planning while motivating social skills. Many parents describe the bridge that this provides from therapy to community as miraculous. They exclaim, "My son has limited language and now he is on the swim team!" Additionally, many parents rave about an amazing family vacation because their child swam every day, even engaged others in the pool. More importantly, the child was at an optimal level of arousal, able to participate in family activities throughout the day, minus usual difficulties. Stories like theses will keep you marinating in the pool.

Written by Cindy Freedman and Ailene Tisser of Angelfish Therapy, LLC. Angelfish Therapy is an OT/ PT team of therapists who specialize in aquatic therapy. We have recently expanded from Westchester and Fairfield County to the Lexington Aloft hotel. We provide private, semi private and small group therapy. We also offer training DVD’s and courses. For more information please visit our website or call 203-545-0024.

Continue Reading

Eating Disorders in Swimmers

Take home points

1. Disordered eating is a common problem in swimming and other aquatic sports
2. The issue is complex going beyond nutrition
3. Awareness by coaches is key to providing the right guidance to athletes and directing them to appropriate professionals

It’s no secret that food is tightly woven into the swimming culture. From pre-meet carbo load sessions to post-practice gorges to some swimmers wanting to cut weight, it’s almost impossible to avoid the presence of food in swimming rituals. But a less talked about, and often taboo subject in the swim community, is the presence of eating disorders in swimmers. This is hardly a new topic, but recent research deserves review in this context. Further, many coaches, athletes, and parents are simply unaware of the problem while others retain a balance of ignorance and denial.

Swimming, by its nature, carries a higher risk of athletes developing eating disorders. “Athletes in leanness-demanding sports have an increased risk for RED-S and for developing EDs/DE. Special risk factors in aquatic sports related to weight and body composition management include the wearing of skimpy and tight-fitting bathing suits.” (Melin 2014) Though many swimmers are proud to showcase their sculpted bodies with minimal clothing, the constant display has a psychological cost for many, particularly females.

This psychological cost often drives eating disorders, often considered a taboo subject. Because eating disorders are more than a food issue, coach and athlete communication are key. Yet this is often an issue with gender overtones, and many male coaches are unable to communicate effectively with young female athletes, no matter their best intentions. (see Female Coaching Opportunities in Swimming) In one recent study in high school sports (not only swimming), “Significant differences were found between male and female coaches in certain attitudes and communication behaviors related to eating and menstrual irregularity. (Kroshus 2014)

However, misunderstanding is not restricted to gender, as “Coaches knowledge [of the Female Athlete Triad] was limited; however, most (9/10) were comfortable discussing menstruation with their athletes. Barriers to Triad screening/education were coaches' insufficient time, knowledge, and educational resources.” (Brown 2014)

Yet the reasons for eating disorders are varied, ranging from non-athletic (aesthetic, body image) to a desire for better athletic performance. “Individual changes in the desire to be leaner to improve sports performance were associated with individual changes in disordered eating. Furthermore….a desire to be leaner to improve sports performance was predictive of disordered eating and not vice versa. The results of our study indicate that athletes are more at risk for disordered eating if they believe it is possible to enhance their sports performance through weight regulation." (Krentz 2013)

Though eating disorders can spiral into physical and psychological depths, physical performance can be negatively impacted at the early stages. “[Disordered eating]-positive compared with DE-negative athletes presented a higher percentage of body fat and fat mass, lower protein consumption in the 11- to 14-y-old group, and lower calcium intake adequacy in the 15- to 19-y-old group. Greater attention should be given to the nutritional state of these athletes, considering the number of adolescents with anemia and an inadequate dietary intake.” (Da Costa 2013)

Conclusion

Like many issues outside the pool, awareness is most important. While coaches and parents may lack certain expertise to intervene if problems reach clinical levels, everyone has the expertise to create the right environment to prevent problems. Though swimmers are often known to eat with impunity to refuel from 4+ hours of practice a day, a dark underside of eating disorders exists among a subset of athletes, particularly females. Awareness is the first key step to ensuring swimmers are healthy both mentally and physically to thrive in the pool.

References:

1. Krentz EM1, Warschburger P. A longitudinal investigation of sports-related risk factors for disordered eating in aesthetic sports. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2013 Jun;23(3):303-10. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2011.01380.x. Epub 2011 Aug 18.
2. Melin A1, Torstveit MK, Burke L, Marks S, Sundgot-Borgen J. Disordered eating and eating disorders in aquatic sports. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2014 Aug;24(4):450-9. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.2014-0029. Epub 2014 Mar 25.
3. Brown KN1, Wengreen HJ2, Beals KA3. Knowledge of the female athlete Triad, and prevalence of Triad risk factors among female high school athletes and their coaches. J Pediatr Adolesc gynecol. 2014 Oct;27(5):278-82. doi: 10.1016/j.jpag.2013.11.014. Epub 2014 Jul 9.
4. Kroshus E1, Sherman RT, Thompson RA, Sossin K, Austin SB. Gender differences in high school coaches' knowledge, attitudes, and communication about the female athlete triad. Eat Disord. 2014;22(3):193-208. doi: 10.1080/10640266.2013.874827. Epub 2014 Jan 23.
5. da Costa NF1, Schtscherbyna A, Soares EA, Ribeiro BG. Disordered eating among adolescent female swimmers: dietary, biochemical, and body composition factors. Nutrition. 2013 Jan;29(1):172-7. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2012.06.007. Epub 2012 Sep 28.

Written by Allan Phillips is a certified strength and conditioning specialist (CSCS) and owner of Pike Athletics. He is also an ASCA Level II coach and USA Triathlon coach. Allan is a co-author of the Troubleshooting System and was selected by Dr. Mullen as an assistant editor of the Swimming Science Research Review. He is currently pursuing a Doctorate in Physical Therapy at US Army-Baylor University.

Continue Reading

Weekly Round-up

Each week we aggregate recent swimming journals and blog posts relating to

swimming biomechanics, physiology, nutrition, psychology, etc. If you wish to add, please add an article in the comments section.

Journal Round-up 

1. Vitamin C and E supplementation alters protein signalling after a strength training session, but not muscle growth during 10 weeks of training.
2. Impact of Intravenous Iron on Aerobic Capacity and Iron Metabolism in Elite Athletes.
3. Effects of Five Nights under Normobaric Hypoxia on Sleep Quality.
4. Microvascular Dilator Function in Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.
5. Evaluation of Sports Nutrition Knowledge and Recommendations Among High School Coaches.
6. Influence of pacing manipulation on performance of juniors in simulated 400-m swim competition.

Blog Round-up

1.  ISOSC Online Conference
2. Adam Kiefer Discusses Motor Learning
3. Tension of Kinesiotape Doesn't Matter for Floor Touch Improvement
4. Periodization for Dryland and Swimming
5. Drafting During Swimming
6. Cross-Education Strength and Activation After Eccentric Exercise
7. Differences in Scapular Muscle Activation Ratios During Functional Shoulder Exercises
8. Minimum Effective Training Dose

Continue Reading

Adam Kiefer Discusses Motor Learning

1. Please introduce yourself to the readers (how you started in the profession, education,

credentials, experience, etc.).

My name is Adam Kiefer and I am the director of the new, state of the art Training Enhancement and Analysis of Movement Virtual Reality (TEAM VR) laboratory in the Division of Sports Medicine at Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center. I am also an assistant professor in both pediatrics and psychology at the University of Cincinnati. I earned my BS in Exercise and Sports Science at the University of Wisconsin – LaCrosse and during my undergraduate training I served as both the head boy’s and girls varsity tennis coach and also the head freshman girl’s basketball coach at Holmen high school in Holmen, WI. After completion of my MS in Movement Science/Sport Psychology at Barry University in Miami FL, I earned a PhD in Experimental Psychology at the University of Cincinnati where I studied perceptual-motor control and development with research focussed on both expert athletic performance and rehabilitation following injury. This work led me to a four year post-doctoral research fellowship at Brown University in Providence, RI where I utilized innovative virtual reality technologies to examine perceptual-motor deficits to inform rehabilitation practices in patients with low vision, and I have continued my work in virtual reality and associated technologies in my current position at Cincinnati Children’s.

2. You recently published an article on motor learning and electroencephalography (EEG). What do we know about these two subjects (ie what area of the brain are responsible for motor learning)?

This might be a little out there, but humor me for a minute. Imagine you know nothing about the sport of baseball, and by nothing I mean you have never even heard of the sport. Moreover, you don’t know how many players are on a team and you don’t even know what equipment is used. So I take you to a baseball game to let you experience and learn all about the sport. Except that I can’t allow you to see anything or talk to anyone. The only method I can use to help you learn about the sport is to let you listen to the cheering crowd. Throughout the game the crowd cheers when good things happen, boos when things go poorly, is quiet during some high stress moments, and is loudly encouraging during others. Over the course of the game you build a limited understanding of what is happening through the cheering pattern of the fans. This is the same way that EEG works. We are essentially learning about a process by listening to the “Cheering patterns” of neurons—more specifically, the electrical neural activity—and then drawing conclusions from these patterns.

This is an important consideration, as it then makes the identification of specific areas of the brain that are responsible for various processes (movement, vision, etc) very tricky to truly localize for a given task. Over the years, algorithms have been developed to better identify specific areas, but just like we can’t listen to the noise of a crowd and figure out exactly what noises every individual person in the crowd is making or, more importantly, exactly how many people are in the crowd, we also can’t tell exactly which specific neurons are firing or even how many are firing. What we can get is a general idea of where the cheering is coming from (i.e., left field vs. behind home plate) so we are able to make generalizations to regions of the brain. For example, the occipital region is known to be more active during visually-dominant tasks as measured by electrodes placed at occipital sites, where as the integration of sensory information from a variety of sources might lead to changes in activation as measured by electrodes placed at central sites (typically in-between the frontal and parietal lobe) near the middle of the skull, above and slightly in front of the tops of the ears.

3. Do the areas of the brain during motor learning change on the skill level of the performer or the difficulty of the task?

As in the “cheering neuron” example, EEG’s strength is that it can tell us whether the electrical activity of the brain changes before, during or after learning. The electrical activity is generally broken down into different waveforms, or components, that each tell us something different about the activity itself. For example, there is a large body of research on the effect of learning on target shooting of marksmen that has demonstrated that one kind of EEG alpha activity—waveforms that are usually most prominent when someone is awake and relaxed—tend to be higher in skilled marksmen prior to shooting compared to less skilled marksmen. It is believed that this is due to a more relaxed performance state prior to a given action or behavior. So the amount of this particular alpha activity can indicate the mental state of the athlete. For example, a less experienced athlete may exhibit a decrease in alpha activity that coincides with more stress prior to performance of a difficult task, while a more experienced athlete would tend to stay more relaxed and maintain a more stable level of performance.

4. Is there an ideal age for motor learning?

My colleagues and I have written about this in another paper, titled: Training the developing brain, part I: cognitive developmental considerations for training youth. We have defined the term training age. Training age is an age that represents the child’s prior experiences of context-specific training (e.g., swimming) that is partially, but not wholly, dependent on the child’s time course of natural physical development. We advocate for starting children early in generalized and integrative neuromuscular training to advance the development of the child’s general motor skill proficiency; however, the initiation of training at an earlier age is not always easy because it is dependent on the child’s cognitive and perceptual-motor development. In other words, the child must be physically and/or mentally prepared for training and the training must be geared toward the child’s capabilities and level of understanding. Starting a child in more generalized training at a younger age has the potential to allow for more sport-specific training at an earlier age as well, and both are advantageous given their brains tend to be more “plastic”, or responsive, to training. To be clear, I am not advocating for sport specialization but rather making a case that a strong foundation in neuromuscular control will provide a large number of benefits in early childhood, adolescence and throughout adulthood. So unfortunately it is not as simple as saying, “Charlie is 5 and now he is ready for training.” Instead, parents should discuss their child’s capabilities with a certified strength and conditioning specialist, or well-educated coach, and based on an assessment decide what is best for their child at a particular age.

5. What did your study look at?

This particular study looked at how adults learn to perform a completely novel task. We used a mirror-star tracer, which requires the performer to only utilize the reflection of his or her hand in a mirror as he or she traces the outline of a five point star. As you can imagine, it is difficult to find a task that adults have never performed. But when studying motor learning, it is beneficial to have people start at a similar level of task familiarity, and the mirror star tracer task is one that has been used quite a bit in psychology/motor learning research.

We were also interested in whether practicing the entire task (e.g., tracing the entire star over and over again) or only practicing parts of the task (e.g., tracing each point of the star over and over in a random order, but never tracing the entire star) would lead to more efficient learning. People may recognize these as the “Whole” and “Part” practice techniques. We also had a third group that did not practice the task at all.

We collected EEG data in three star-tracing tests prior to the intervention, and then three star-tracing tests after the practice intervention (either whole, part or no practice).

6. What were the results of your study?

As is true with a lot of research the results weren’t as clear cut as we would have liked, but they do provide a window into motor learning at a very basic level. The main takeaway from the study was that we saw greater alpha power following practice, compared to EEG activity when performing the star tracer task prior to any practice. These results may indicate a familiarization with the task and/or more efficient perceptual-motor activity in the brain following practice. This replicates the work of others and also builds on previous findings.

7. What were the practical implications for coaches and swimmers from your study?

This was a research study designed to uncover basic processes inherent to motor learning using a very simple task, so we have to be careful about making broad generalizations to more complex activities. What I will say is that we want our athletes to be efficient in their athletic maneuvers, whether it be a particular stroke in swimming or driving the lane in basketball. In swimming even small changes in movement efficiency can have large impacts on overall performance and, especially at elite levels, might be the ultimate difference between finishing first or second. If we can optimize the neural activity for a given movement during skill training, we can better optimize movement strategies for a given sport context. The more important question is: How do we optimize movement strategies? Well, one way to utilize this information is to understand when alpha activity decreases and if there are observable performance outcomes associated with these changes. This allows a coach or trainer to know that the athlete may be more relaxed with their current movement patterns and to appropriately challenge the athlete in practice.

7. Do you think the results would be different if you had a different task or different skill level of the participant?

Skill level probably would influence the results more than a different task. A higher-level performer would likely already exhibit similar alpha activity to what we observed, even before practice. This is why we chose the task that we did. We wanted individuals to perform a novel task so that everyone was on an even playing field from the outset. A different task would only matter if someone had expertise in that task already.

8. If you were looking to maximize learning a new aspect of swimming (ie a different hand entry position), what would be the ideal method of implementation and frequency of feedback?

It certainly depends on the complexity of the movement and the training context, and the question really is about internal vs. external focused feedback. Internal focused feedback is utilized to teach precise techniques and encourages the athlete to explicitly focus attention on specific bodily movement patterns. While this technique has been classically utilized, research indicates that external focused feedback—feedback that directs the athlete’s attention externally toward the consequences of their movements rather than on the movement itself—generally is more robust in its transfer of complex, learned skills to competition in the pool, or on the field of play.

9. Is there an ideal type of feedback (verbal, tactile, visual)?

All things equal, visual feedback is the most powerful and can be processed extremely fast. It is also dominant in the sense that it can even override proprioceptive or tactile feedback. There is a famous study that had people perform really difficult polyrhythms (e.g., 3 taps with the right hand while simultaneously tapping 7 times with the left). The participants were not able to perform a variety of complex rhythms when they viewed their hands. However, when they were unable to see their hands and visual feedback was given that only directed participants to move their hands in such a way that a shape was drawn on a screen in front of them (the shape was only drawn correctly when they performed a 3/7 rhythm), the participants were able to execute the task. So why are we able to do this?

Well, we are information hungry beings. In other words, our bodies are always craving any kind of sensory information we can get our hands on (no pun intended), and will utilize it whenever we can. We will even make use of it when it misleads us or when it is incongruent with other sensory feedback. For this reason, I would advocate for a multi-faceted feedback approach that utilizes all of the components of the sensory-motor system. This is advantageous because it allows for redundancy in the system in the case that, during the heat of competition, one type of information is unavailable then the athlete can utilize other perceptual modalities (I.e., proprioception instead of vision) to continue movement efficiency. It also teaches the system to be poised and ready to utilize all types of information quickly and efficiently.

10. Who is doing the most interesting research currently in your field? What are they doing?

Well I am definitely biased, but my colleague Dr. Greg Myer is one of the most well-published researchers when it comes to training youth for performance enhancement and injury prevention. Outside of our team, I think probably Gabriele Wulf out of UNLV. She has conducted a lot of important research on external focus and what it means for skill acquisition and retention in motor learning.

11. What makes your research different from others?

My own work is a hybrid of perceptual-motor research from my training in psychology and performance enhancement/injury prevention. I work to find ways that athlete’s can exploit information, whether during performance or when given feedback, that will make the learning of specific movement patterns more efficient and protect the athletes from injury. I also utilize cutting edge technologies, including virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), to put athletes in “safe zones” where we can challenge them in a variety of ways through VR, or provide them feedback using AR, while letting them move freely as they would in their over-ground sport.

12. Which teachers have most influenced your research?

Wow, there have been a lot of them. Gualberto Cremades (Barry University) and Jay Lee (now at the University of Houston) first got me interested in psychophysiology, and research in movement science more generally. Mike Riley at the University of Cincinnati really gave me the technical skills to analyze data in extremely novel ways, and to think about perceptual-motor processes very differently than the majority of the existing classic research. Bill Warren, at Brown University, really pushed me to think about human behavior in ways that are completely novel, and to utilize VR to probe the visual system and to ask the right questions about how humans utilize perceptual information to drive behavior. The influence of both Bill and Mike is probably the most dominant theme in my current work, and my experience working with Bill in his Virtual Environment Navigation Lab is the reason I am pushing hard for the development of VR applications to enhance training in sport. Needless to say, I wouldn’t be where I am today without any of these people.

13. What research or projects are you currently working on or should we look from you in the future?

Our general focus is on injury prevention and we have a lot of exciting research on the horizon. We have a newly renovated research center that is going to be opening in early spring, 2015. It will house multiple labs and have about 2000 square feet of space for wireless VR with full-body motion capture technology to assess biomechanical variables related to movement performance. It will be the only lab of its kind in the world. We are partnering with the military simulation software company VT-MAK to help us develop realistic sport-specific virtual environments, and also with Tobii Technologies to utilize their cutting-edge eye tracking technology to understand athlete’s attention and functional deficits associated with injury. In addition, we have a partnership with ElMindA, a technology company based in Israel that has developed a Brain Network Activation analysis that utilizes EEG to assess recovery from concussions, among other things. We are also in the middle of development of some very novel strategies to deliver visual feedback that is externally focussed through heads-up wearable displays (e.g., google glass) so that athletes can be anywhere in the laboratory space, train with our strength and conditioning specialists and interact with their peers, but have individualized external-focussed feedback in their field of view whenever they want to access it. Our goal is to be the world leader in injury prevention for sports medicine and I believe we are well on our way.

Continue Reading

Tension of Kinesiotape Doesn't Matter for Floor Touch Improvement

Allan Phillips has discussed kinesiotape (KT) in two previous posts:

1. Kinesiotape and Swimmers Part I
2. Kinesiotape and Swimmers Part II

In his first post, he concluded:

"[o]verall the evidence is incomplete, but not definitive in either direction. Most notably, Kinesiotaping has not been tested thoroughly in combination with other procedures. It’s possible that taping may have different effects done as a standalone treatment versus when used to reinforce a clinical procedure (spinal manipulation, massage, dry needling, etc).

My personal opinion is that Kinesiotape may have actual effects but the mechanisms are still unknown. It may take several years to separate taping from the methods that it is frequently paired with. It is still too early to call it a placebo or alternatively, a miracle treatment. That said, because much anecdotal evidence exists with very little observed side effects (other than tape addiction), Kinesiotape deserves consideration as a method to improve muscle length, strength, and timing, especially when used to support other interventions."

Luckily, research is surfacing about KT and questioning the use of this tape, particularly the scientific reasoning behind its principles.

The study below analyzes how KT is applied and as Allan has said previously: 

"[k]eep in mind that research does not account for nuances in how tape is applied, as I can tell you firsthand that the craftsmanship of trained clinicians far exceeds “locker room” self-application. This may be one area in which clinicians are ahead of researchers. I’ve recently spent a lot of time volunteering in a clinic recently that frequently uses Kinesiotape. One point noting is that clinicians with formal training from tape companies have far more techniques in their arsenal than someone who just throws tape on areas that feel tight or sore. If you fully immerse yourself in the system, there’s actually quite a depth of thought in the techniques, even if those techniques have not been tested by formal research."

Does Kinesiotape Application Matter?

Thirty-nine females (18 – 27 years) performed the Schober test, marking the midpoint of the two posterior-superior iliac spines (S2 level) and then other two points 5 cm below and 10 cm above the initial level. The distance between the three points was measured in the standing and bent over position.

The subjects were split into three groups:

1)    Control.

2)    Kinesiotape without tension (just laying down the tape).

3)    Kinesiotape with tension (applying 15 – 50% tension on the tape).

Subjects were assessed 24 hours with the tape one, 48 hours with the tape on, and 30 days after the tape removal. The tape was applied for 48 hours.

Results of Kinesiotape Application

The average Schober test results before KT was 6.07 cm. No significant differences were found between the averages obtained from the Schober test before applying the KT, 48 hours with the tape on, and 30 days after the removal in any of the groups.

However, there were significant improvements for the KT with tension and without tension for the fingertip-to-floor distance at 48 hours.

Results of Kinesiotape Application

It seems KT with or without tension improves fingertip-to-floor mobility. This suggests the method of application may be over complicated and unnecessary for improvement in range of motion. The mechanism of improvement is still speculative. 

If looking to improve fingertip-to-floor mobility, consider applying KT with or without tension. These results may differ in people with low back pain or other conditions.

Reference:

1. Lemos TV, Albino AC, Matheus JP, Barbosa Ade M. The effect of kinesio taping in forward bending of the lumbar spine. J Phys Ther Sci. 2014 Sep;26(9):1371-5. doi: 10.1589/jpts.26.1371. Epub 2014 Sep 17.

The Swimming Science Research Review educates coaches with ongoing sports science literature. With the influx of online information makes it difficult to stay up-to-date with informative, accurate research studies. The Swimming Science Research Review brings you a comprehensive research articles on swimming, biomechanics, physiology, psychology, and much more!

This monthly publication keeps busy coaches and swimming enthusiast on top of swimming research to help their programs excel, despite being extremely busy.

By Dr. G. John Mullen received his Doctorate in Physical Therapy from the University of Southern California and a Bachelor of Science of Health from Purdue University where he swam collegiately. He is the owner of COR, Strength Coach Consultant, Creator of the Swimmer's Shoulder System, and chief editor of the Swimming Science Research Review.

Continue Reading

Periodization for Dryland and Swimming

Periodization is never a simple topic, and I’d be doing my profession a disservice to try to sum up
such a complicated topic in a short 1000 words.  This post could easily turn into a 100,000 word book and create more questions than answers.  But what I can do is try to explain periodization of strength training in a simple enough manner that a swim coach, without access to a Strength and Conditioning program can give their athlete a weight training regimen to coincide with the rigorous in-water training the swimmers are already doing.

Conjugate Method

For purposes of full-disclosure, I’m very biased to the American-Conjugate style training system popularized by Westside Barbell (as I write this, I’m actually on a training trip at Westside).  This is a system that has been modified from the old Bulgarian System for Powerlifting, as opposed to Olympic Weightlifting as in the original module.  This consists of a Max Effort session, which involves working up to 100% of a 1 rep-max on a given lift, once per week, in addition to a Dynamic Effort session, consisting of lifting weights in between 40-70% of a 1RM for maximum speed over several reps and sets.  This of course is on the basis of the physics equation: Force = Mass x Acceleration.  In which acceleration is trained via the dynamic method, and mass being manipulated via the maximum effort method.  The exercises are then rotated every 1-3 weeks to avoid overtraining/ adaptation to the exercises.  Barbell weight is then mixed with band tension, as well as chain weight (commonly referred to as accommodated resistance), and although this is not specific to this particular system, many would credit its popularity to it.

This is not a comprehensive look at the Conjugate system, just a quick introduction to a very complex sport system which has been constantly evolving over the past 25 years.  And as I stated earlier, I’m rather biased to this, and that is simply because it works.  I use this system in my own personal training for my endeavors in powerlifting, and many of my athletes train under the same system; having said this, I do understand the complexity of the system, as well as its place in training athletes.  Only my most advanced clients and athletes use this system because of its frequent changes and high level of intensity, which may not be best for athletes which are also balancing a high sport-specific training load.

Linear Periodization

With a swimming population, the majority of the athletes are very young in weight training age.  This means that these athletes can follow a rather simple protocol and achieve some pretty spectacular results (commonly referred to as ‘beginner gains’ in gym lingo).  A very simple protocol which can be followed by this population is linear, or western periodization.  This is where the main strength exercises are followed and progress by a direct or ‘linear’ increase in a specific aspect of training, such as: repetitions, sets, volume, or most commonly, weight.  In this system, which is pre-planned, and leads up to a particular date, or event, the athlete will continue to make progress and peak at the time of competition.

Undulating Periodization

One of my favorite methods of periodization, though, is undulating.  In this method, percentages of an individuals 1RM on a particular exercise are varied throughout a particular period of time.  The idea behind this change in intensity being that, as the stimuli (intensity of 1RM) changes, so will the athlete’s adaptation to exercise, therefore the athlete will be able to continue to make progress, while someone on a linear module may have already reached a training plateau.

Merging Philosophies

The introduction above to different periodization modules is just that—an introduction.  Sport scientists spend years trying to develop the perfect periodization plan for athletes, which compose dozens of different modules, but conjugate, linear, and undulating tend to be the most common camps in Strength and Conditioning. 

So what is best for swimmers?  
A merged approach, taking the best qualities of each program and combining it to fit our needs tends to work best.  From linear periodization, we can take the regimented outlook which leads up to one meet, or series of meets where the athlete is the strongest.  We should also appreciate striving for improved strength in each subsequent workout, and although this may seem like an unlikely feat as an athlete enters a period of high volume in the pool, the athlete’s young weight training age tends to help accelerate strength gains even under periods of such duress in the season.

From an undulating approach, we can change rep ranges each week to decrease the possibility of stagnation, or a strength plateau.  A great way to do this is using the same exercise over a period of several weeks (generally referred to as a ‘mesocycle’), and having a starting rep pattern, say 3x6 on a given exercise with 100 lbs., then following it the next week with 3x8 at 100 lbs. (improving the athletes repetition-max), followed by a reduction in repetitions the following week, with an increase in weight, 3x6 again, but now with 110 lbs.

The conjugate method is also great for preventing plateaus in training.  Rotate the main strength exercises frequently enough, approximately every 4-8 weeks to create new stimuli.  The changes should not be too large, however.  Exercises should be changed but kept in the same movement pattern.  In the true conjugate fashion, barbells can be rotated through specialty bars such as cambered bars, buffalo bars, fat bars, etc..  But because many of these are not available, a good substitute can be back squat to front squat, or flat bench press to low incline bench press, and so on.  Again, this method popularized accommodating resistance tools such as chains and bands.  If you have the means to use these tools, please do.  These can greatly increase an athlete’s power output, while reducing deceleration as the bar passes a sticking point (with bands, the sticking point in a lift is reduced because of added tension on the bar as it is moved).

An approach such as this should only be taken for main exercises in a workout.  Because of the additional, sport-specific demands of the athlete, trying to progress weights on every exercise will be far too time consuming, as well as too tedious. 

Because of this I suggest an approach that looks something like this:

• General Warm Up - consisting of soft-tissue work, mobility exercises, etc. 
• Main Exercises – Here is where the periodization can come into effect, use big, compound exercises which work a major movement pattern such as: squats, hip hinges, presses, and pulls. 
• Accessory/Corrective work – The weights here don’t necessarily need to be improved every week (try adding 5 lbs. to your triceps extension weight every week… Not going to happen).  Just make sure good form is being used.
• Cool Down/ Movement Work – Time to cycle out some lactate from the blood, return the heart rate to resting, and engage the parasympathetic nervous system (the rest & digest part of the brain).  No need to progress anything here.

Periodization for Meets

This is going to vary much depending on circumstances, like meet importance, number of events, etc.. The first thing to dial back when tapering in a dryland program will be volume in accessory work.  This means that the additional exercises after the strength portion should be cut back in number of sets, and total exercises performed.  Around 14 days out from the meet, accessory work can be cut to a few basic corrective exercises, and the main strength component can be cut in intensity (reduction in total poundage, or percentage of 1RM lifted), while focusing on bar speed and acceleration.  About a week out from the meet, dryland can be dropped all together, or reduced to just focus on recovery, using tools such as breathing drills, foam rolling, mobility work, etc..

Although pre-season dryland should be the most arduous, volume can be manipulated throughout the season to elicit a desired training effect, and should mirror the volume and intensity of in-pool training.  To increase the training volume, adding more sets of the strength component can be a great place to start.  To stem off of an earlier example, if you start off the season with 3x6 on a given exercise, you can have the athletes add another set the following week, and then yet another the week after this. 

Volume can also be added to the accessory work, but this should never come at the cost of a reduction in strength, or swimming training.  Right before the last push in training prior to a taper is a great time to add more volume in the accessory exercises.  This will help preserve muscle mass, increase blood flow, and expedite recovery via increased blood flow to skeletal muscle. 

REMEMBER: Just as you would be hesitant to add volume and intensity to a swimming program simultaneously, you should also be weary of doing so with dryland-based exercises.   

Periodization Wrap-Up

Periodization is a concept hard enough to make the most seasoned coaches frustrated and confused.  Just remember that 80% of your results will come from the first 20% of what you put in.  Always focus on compound lifts, and know that anything done in dryland training is not going to be swim-specific.  Strength training will create a better athlete through reduced risk of injury, improved tissue quality, increased force and power output, improved proprioception and heightened neural function.  Get a strong grasp on understanding dryland basics and you will have a much better athlete.

Written by John Matulevich a powerlifting world record holder in multiple lifts and weight classes, as well as a Head D-2 Strength Coach, and previously a nationally ranked college athlete. His concentrations are in sports performance, powerlifting, and weight training for swimming. To learn more about how John trains his athletes, check his Twitter page: @John_Matulevich. He can also be reached at MuscleEmporium@gmail.com with inquiries.

Continue Reading

Drafting During Swimming

Take Home Points

1. Little study exists on the effect of drafting in pool swimming.
   
2. Drafting may affect RPE at similar paces, potentially affecting confidence when drafting is removed.
3. Effects of a draft may affect workouts even with two swimmers splitting a lane rather than a larger group circling.

Swimmers universally have negative thoughts about drafting. Many swimmers are annoyed by drafters and coaches can be frustrated when swimmers aim for a free ride in the pool. While drafting is an essential skill in open water and triathlon, it is seen as poor form during a swim workout.

Despite the universal dislike for pool drafters, there has been little formal study on the effects of pool drafting as typically practiced in workouts, in part because we all have our own lanes during races. In other words, the literature is sparse on the difference between leaving 2-3 seconds after the lead swimmer as opposed to the more typical 5-10 seconds. That said, it still may be helpful to view the literature on drafting with swimmers following more closely.

Not surprisingly, following directly behind a lead swimmer can have significant effects on speed. Chatard (2003) studied swimmers drafting directly behind at 0, 50, 100, and 150 cm and at lateral distances separated by approximately 40 cm, and in two positions at the rear of the lead swimmer with a reduced lateral distance between swimmers of 50 and 0 cm." Authors noted "the most advantageous drafting distances were 0 and 50 cm back from the toes of the lead swimmer. Drag was reduced by 21% and 20%, respectively. In lateral drafting, "drag was significantly reduced by 6% and 7%, respectively, at 50 and 100 cm back from the hands of the lead swimmer."

As for physiology, "Oxygen uptake, heart rate, blood lactate, rating of perceived exertion, and stroke

rate were significantly reduced and stroke length was significantly increased in all drafting positions. Jannsen (2009) found similar results: “The best position for a draft swimmer was found to be directly behind an active lead swimmer at a distance of 0.50 m between the toes of lead swimmer and the hands of drafter, with significant reductions in both passive drag and oxygen uptake when drafting.”

The effects on stroke parameters and physiology were explored additionally by Chollet (2000) who found "lactate concentrations were lower in drafting while the stroking parameters (i.e., stroke length and stroke index) increased significantly, and the stroke frequency remain unchanged. In drafting, a stable pace was maintained, while in nondrafting, velocity decreased significantly throughout the 400 m."

Some may theorize that drafting behind swimmers with a bigger kick or during sprint sets may present different results than drafting behind a smoother swimmer. Millet (2000) found no difference between drafting behind swimmers with a two beat kick versus those with a six beat kick in a study of elite triathletes. In a separate study involving elite triathletes, Chatard (1998) found that lower skinfold was correlated with greater improvements from drafting conditions, though all swimmers regardless of skinfold improved significantly from a draft.

Conclusion

You could make the argument that an “assist” late in a workout may be beneficial, much like a spotter giving a small assist to a weightlifter at the end of a set. Rather than blowing up and missing an interval, a small draft could help the swimmer leave the pool with confidence rather than feeling defeated. That doesn’t condone all drafting, but it may be a possible justification for those thinking outside the box.

Ultimately, we have more questions than answers for quantifying the draft as is typically seen in pool workouts, though we clearly know that a draft is helpful for faster swimming and gains are also possible through lateral drafting. Future research can examine the effect of lateral drafting in separate lanes during race conditions, as this is often theorized to have an effect in pool competition.

References

1. Chatard JC1, Wilson B. Drafting distance in swimming. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003 Jul;35(7):1176-81.
2. Chollet D1, Hue O, Auclair F, Millet G, Chatard JC. The effects of drafting on stroking variations during swimming in elite male triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2000 Aug;82(5-6):413-7.
3. Millet G1, Chollet D, Chatard JC.Eur J Appl Physiol. Effects of drafting behind a two- or a six-beat kick swimmer in elite female triathletes.2000 Aug;82(5-6):465-71.
4. Chatard JC1, Chollet D, Millet G.Med Sci Sports Exerc. Performance and drag during drafting swimming in highly trained triathletes.1998 Aug;30(8):1276-80.

Written by Allan Phillips is a certified strength and conditioning specialist (CSCS) and owner of Pike Athletics. He is also an ASCA Level II coach and USA Triathlon coach. Allan is a co-author of the Troubleshooting System and was selected by Dr. Mullen as an assistant editor of the Swimming Science Research Review. He is currently pursuing a Doctorate in Physical Therapy at US Army-Baylor University.

Continue Reading

Michael Fröhlich Discusses Cold Water Immersion for Athletes

1. Please introduce yourself to the readers (how you started in the profession, education,

credentials, experience, etc.).

From 2000 to 2006, I worked at the Olympic Training Center Rhineland-Palatinate/Saarland (Germany) with elite athletes projected to participate in the Olympic Games in Sydney in 2000 and in Athens in 2004. Since 2006, I have been a qualified teacher and associate professor for sport sciences at Saarland University.

2. You recently published an article on cold water immersion (CWI) and strength gains. What are the different types of CWI and what temperatures appear most ideal?

Cold water immersion is one of many different cooling types, such cooling vests, cooling packs, drinking cold water, cryogenic chambers, etc. CWI can be differentiated into whole-body CWI and partial-body CWI. In partial-body CWI, for example, a single leg or single arm was cooled. On average, whole-body CWI was significantly more effective than partial-body CWI. Immersion of only a small part of the body, such as a single arm, does not cool down the body core as effectively as whole-body CWI.

3. What did your study look at?

Most of the published studies analyzed only short-term recovery effects, whereas the adaptation aspect has been widely neglected. So in your study we analyzed the adaptation,, effects of strength training after a routine CWI.

4. What were the results of your study?

The main result of your study was that strength training adaptations were reduced by 1-2% after a 5-week strength training regime, with the trained leg being regularly cooled directly after training compared to an uncooled control condition.

5. What were the practical implications for athletes?

Based on the results of our study, it has been concluded that CWI can have a negative impact on strength training adaptation in persons with strength training experience. It has also been shown that small deteriorations in training adaptation in the long term could be balanced with the possible beneficial short-term recovery effects of CWI.

6. Do you think the results would be different if you had differently trained athletes?

That is a very good question! The transferability of the results to a higher performance level in combination with the optimal scenarios for the application of cold water immersion as a recovery means in a practical setting does indeed require further research.

7. What do you think of different types of cryotherapy or contrast therapy?

Based on the available evidence, I think that cryotherapy seems to be very effective in decreasing pain. Further effects of cryotherapy on more frequently treated acute injuries have not been fully understood.

8. How about full body cryotherapy at extremely low temperatures (http://www.cryohealthcare.com/about-cryotherapy/)?

In this context, Poppendieck et al. (2013) published a very interesting meta-analytical review. The authors can show that the effect size of CWI was slightly higher than for cryogenic chambers. For cooling packs, average effects were negligible (see Poppendieck, W., Faude, O., Wegmann, M. & Meyer, T. (2013). Cooling and performance recovery of trained athletes: A meta-analytical review. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 8(3), 227-242.

9. A lot of swimmers are using CWI on a daily basis, do you think this is beneficial, harmful, or neutral for performance?

I don’t know. Many athletes use CWI as part of their daily routine, but any long-term effect on performance is not yet well understood. In this field, further research is needed.

10. What research or projects are you currently working on or should we look from you in the future?

My co-workers and I are currently conducting a cross-over training study involving CWI. The longitudinal study is scheduled to take one year.

Continue Reading