Exhaustive Resistance Training Alters Joint Biomechanics

"Although no research consistently suggests resistance training directly improves swimming, if certain goals are kept in mind, it is likely a mode to benefit swimming performance. Also, if you do decide to lift, swimming prior to resistance training is likely most beneficial to allow maximal performance at swim practice and potentially stress the body more at dry-land to yield greater results (Mullen 2012)". 

Despite this recommendation, as more research surmounts, further updates are warranted. Luckily, a recent study analyzed the effects of resistance training fatigue on joint biomechanics. Hooper (2013) and researchers from Connecticut had twelve trained male subjects (mean age 24) perform an exhaustive resistance exercise program consisting of:

“75% 1RM was used on each of the 3 lifts; back squat, bench press, and deadlift. The subjects began with 10 repetitions of each lift and then reduced the number consecutively by 1 until they reached only 1 repetition (Hooper 2013)”.

After the fatiguing resistance training protocol, hip and knee kinematics were measured with a body weight squat. The results indicated significant alterations in hip and knee kinematics. These results suggest kinematic alterations do occur after fatiguing resistance training.

Looks like someone lifted heavy before swimming...

Conclusion
One asset of the internet is the ability to instantly update information and alter recommendations when warranted. Overall, the swimming community must improve their ability to obtain information and adjust training practices (if you're reading this site, then you'll love the Swimming Science Research Review). This study adds confirmation to the suggestion noted back in December, as

"[m]ovement alterations secondary to resistance training is not ground-breaking information, but it does suggest resistance training prior to swimming may alter joint kinematics. Future studies must confirm this and see how long the kinematic adaptations occur after resistance training (Mullen 2013)".

Once again, if you are performing exhaustive resistance training (ie CrossFit ... which requires a separate post), then perform resistance training after exercise. This does not suggest all resistance training must be done after swimming, as post-activation potentiation (PAP) may improve short-term power output (see tomorrow's interview with Dr. Fletcher). Moreover, different resistance training intensities must be tested to affirm results with different intensity or dry-land activates.
Reference:

1. Hooper DR, Szivak TK, Distefano LJ, Comstock BA, Dunn-Lewis C, Apicella JM, Kelly NA, Creighton BC, Volek JS, Maresh CM, Kraemer WJ. Effects of resistance training fatigue on joint biomechanics.J Strength Cond Res. 2013 Jan;27(1):146-53. 
2. Mullen, GJ. (2012). Should I lift Before or After I swim. Swimming Science. Retrieved Feb. 27, 2013, http://www.swimmingscience.net/2012/12/should-i-lift-before-or-after-i-swim.html.

By G. John Mullen Doctorate of Physical Therapy founder of the Center of Optimal Restoration, Dochead strength coach at Santa Clara Swim Club, creator of the Swimmer's Shoulder System, and chief editor of the Swimming Science Research Review.

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Male Sprint Freestyle Tempos

In swimming, the tempo is the time it takes a swimmer to perform a complete cycle (one arm stroke for breast and fly and two arm strokes for free and back). For some reason, tempo data is popping up left and right, specifically in the ASCA newsletter and on the USA Swimming website. From USA Swimming, Russell Mark (2013) found the highest and lowest tempos of the top 8 swimmers at the US Olympic Trials:

Russel (2013) notes 3 important points:

1. Individuals who swim multiple distances have slower tempos for the longer races.
2. Tempos tend to slow down within each length and race. In general, aim to maintain tempo during a length. You do not want to start too quick and fade at the end.
3. While these numbers can be used as a guideline, tempo is very specific to the individual and will vary with technique and body type/size.

John Leonard (2013) published stroke tempo data from "the world's best swimmers" [I don't know where this data came from, so it is impossible to check these statistics] from 2011. Mr. Leonard published the fastest and slowest tempos from this list:

	Fastest	Slowest
50	0.82	1.05
100	1.09	1.28

Leonard (2013) also notes a trend of increasing stroke tempos in short course swimming, compared to long course. He notes:

"[a]nother clearly defined trend is that in the short course of events, the stroke rates are considerably FASTER for both men and women. This might lead one to speculate on where the sport may be going in coming years. The reason for the difference might be explained by the fact that athletes know that with a turn approaching, they will get a momentary release from the same muscular actions, and so feel capable of higher stroke rates in the short course pool."

Overall, I feel the increase in stroke tempo in short course is from the increased overall velocity secondary to the turns, resulting in quicker tempos. Moreover, increasing velocity into the turn likely increases velocity out of the turn, allowing overall greater velocities and faster tempos during short course swimming.

Now these are all great opinions, but what does the literature say about stroke rates and tempos? I mean, expert opinions are the lowest form of evidence, so why should we blindly follow anyone's opinion... 

Brief Research Review

Braden et al. (2009) looked at the swimming biomechanics of elite freestyle swimmers (M = 2; F = 6) throughout a 4 x 200 short course meters (SCM) interval training set (60 seconds rest). Each swimmer was instructed to swim a target time based on a critical speed test:

1. Submaximal intensity
2. Maximal lactate steady state
3. Critical speed
4. VO2max

The results noted a correlation between stroke rate and faster swimming velocity. However, stroke length decreased significantly on the last two conditions. The time of propulsion also decreased in the last two conditions. These results suggest a decrease in the duration of propulsion and recovery phases of freestyle, however propulsion time decreased more than recovery time. This suggests at higher velocities the swimmers pulled their arms through the water faster, to elevate their stroke rate.

Aspenes et al. (2010) analyzed the 100 long course meter (LCM) freestyle performance of eleven male and thirteen female National-level swimmers aged 15 - 24. Mean 100 m time was 65.5 ± 3.7 seconds for females and 58.7 ± 2.1 seconds for males [not Olympic caliber, but reasonable swimmer]. Aspenes (2010) found a correlation in 100-LCM free success and performance in other swimming events. There was no association between stroke length or stroke rate and performance for either gender. This suggests stroke length and rate are highly individualized. 

Seifert et al. (2007) analyzed the kinematic changes during a 100-SCM free of different speeds (eight high-speed, medium-speed, and low-speed males, and high-speed females). The results found an increased time spent in the hand-push phase, likely from a decrease in hand velocity. The high-speed males and females demonstrated more consistent speed and stroke length, likely aiding their success.

Craig et al. (1979) analyzed the relationship of stroke rate, distance per stroke, and velocity in different strokes. These results noted a correlation with increased speed and stroke rate. 

Kennedy et al. (1990) analyzed a swimmer's size and their swimming biomechanics in the four 100 LCM events at the Olympic Games. Kennedy (1990) noted stroke rate was not related to body size, but stroke length was, specifically taller swimmers had loner stroke lengths. 

Conclusion

Stroke rate appears correlated with swimming velocity. Also, height seems unrelated to stroke rate. These two consistent findings are likely the reason why there is little variation in stroke rate in elite men freestyle and why stroke rate is higher at higher speeds and during short course events.

References

1. Kennedy, P., Brown, P., Chengalur, S. N., & Nelson, R. C. (1990). Analysis of male and female Olympic swimmers in the 100-meter events. International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 6, 187-197. 
2. Craig, A. B., Jr., & Pendergast, D. R. (1979). Relationships of stroke rate, distance per stroke, and velocity in competitive swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 11, 278-283. 
3. Nagle, E. F., Robertson, R. J., Zoeller, R. F., Moyna, N. M., & Goss, F. L. (1998). Prediction of swimming performance times using a mixed model of physiological and stroke variables. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30(5), Supplement abstract 279. 
4. Aspenes, S. T., & Kjendlie, P.-L. (2010). 100 m freestyle: Factors affecting performance. A paper presented at the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, June 16–19, 2010. 
5. Barden, J. M., Kell, R. T., & Kobsar, D. (2009). Intra-cyclic stroke parameter changes associated with increased speed in competitive front-crawl swimming. ACSM 56th Annual Meeting, Seattle, Washington. Presentation number 2571. 
6. Seifert, L., Chollet, D., & Chatard, J. C. (2007). Changes during a 100-m front crawl: Effects of performance level and gender. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, 1784-1793. 
7. Mark, R. (2013). Men’s Freestyle Stroke Tempos. USA Swimming. N.p., 19 Feb. Web. 26 Feb. 2013. 
8. Leonard, J. (2013). Stroke Rate Data. ASCA Newsletter, 1, 10. 

By Dr. G. John Mullen received his Doctorate in Physical Therapy from the University of Southern California and a Bachelor of Science of Health from Purdue University where he swam collegiately. He is the owner of COR, Strength Coach Consultant, Creator of the Swimmer's Shoulder System, and chief editor of the Swimming Science Research Review.

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What Motivates a Team?

Building motivation in swimmers is necessary for a successful team. Unfortunately, knowing which factors increase motivation is highly individualized and difficult to assess. For this reason, many coaches feel research is not able to provide individualized tools of motivation for a team. In a recent interview (stay tuned for the whole interview), Kansas Women's coach Clark Campbell discussed the importance of motivation and developing a motivated team. He indicated knowing everyone's role is essential, as each team member brings a different element to the team.

This discussion got me thinking, what motivates a team? 

Most individual motivation is categorized as intrinsic (IM) or extrinsic motivation (EM). Blegen et al. (2013) surveyed 224 in-season Division III college football players (athlete's without financial incentive for performance) with a sport motivation survey. Blegen compared the results of football players on championship and non-championship caliber teams. 

The results suggest there were no motivational differences between starters and non-starters or year in school. However, players on championship teams had greater IM-stimulation, IM-accomplishment and IM-to know, as well as greater EM (Identification, introjection, regulation). This lack of importance on playing status and academic year, suggest the caliber of the team and likely the team environment is a large contributor to motivation. Moreover, improved IM is extremely important, as non-associative self talk is common during harder exercise (Gibler 2012). Non-associated self talk likely causes a dissociation from exercise, impaired  motor learning , and eventually decreased performance.

Even research in swimming suggest, the motivation of the team alters one own motivation. Dr. Rushall (2011) notes this in his book Swimming Pedagogy:


"Peer relationships are one of the most important motivational sources in swimming (McPherson,
Marteniuk, Tihanyi, & Clark, 1977; Reitter, 1982). Peer approvals of behaviors are much more
frequent and influential than those of the coach (Rushall, 1982). It is important for procedures to be
developed where swimmers have the opportunities to reinforce and recognize each other for good
behaviors and achievements. Experiments have shown that peer reinforcement in swimming settings
is more influential than coach reactions (McKenzie & Rushall, 1980)."

Conclusion
EM and IM have been previously suggested as the main modes of motivation in elite athletes. Specifically, IM appears to correlate with success. As a coach, it is vital to encourage a team of IMed athletes. Coaches of all levels, especially in those where financial resources are limited/irrelevant (Division II, III, age-group), should strive to increase IM and EM and their swimmers for the sake of motivating their team.

Reference

1. Blegen MD, Stenson MR, Micek DM, Matthews TD. Motivational differences for participation among championship and non-championship caliber NCAA division III football teams. J Strength Cond Res. 2012 Nov;26(11):2924-8. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182719123.
2. Campbell, C. (2013, Jan 23). Telephone interview.
3. Rushall, B. S. (2011). Swimming Pedagogy and a Curriculum for Stroke Development (Second Edition). Spring Valley, CA: Sports Science Associates.

By G. John Mullen Doctorate of Physical Therapy founder of the Center of Optimal Restoration, Dochead strength coach at Santa Clara Swim Club, creator of the Swimmer's Shoulder System, and chief editor of the Swimming Science Research Review.

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Stress and Championship Swim Meets

Championship season brings a whole new environment for swimmers.  One important question is how does the body respond differently to the stress of a championship event and the pressure building up to the event?  Any competitor knows that championships feel different.  Championships even look different with more people in the stands and maybe some TV cameras present.  But what’s really going on inside the body when we step behind the blocks for a championship race?

Alan Goldberg describes what happens when we succumb to mental demons under the pressure of key races…..

First, your level of NERVOUSNESS will INCREASE. Second, when you get nervous, your MUSCLE TENSION will automatically INCREASE. Third, the amount of NEGATIVE THINKING and SELF-DOUBTS bopping around inside your cranium will increase. And Fourth, when you're flooded with negativity and doubts, your SELF-CONFIDENCE will DO A NOSE DIVE!!!! And finally, and a result of all of these above, your RACE PERFORMANCE will go down the proverbial tubes!!!!

Fortunately, with sound mental strategies such as ones taught by Dr. Goldberg, swimmers can overcome the mental demons and have the best chance of swimming to their potentials.  On the other hand, many other swimmers bring the right mindset to championship season but find their bodies betraying them at the worst possible time due to illness or injury.  Far too many swimmers find themselves nursing colds or more serious maladies despite hitting all their practice goal times and having a successful pre-championship season.   Often the trigger into illness or poor performance is a misunderstanding of stress management before and during big competitions. 

Moreira (2013) studied elite male volleyball players and compared various stress markers between a regular season match and a championship match.  Markers included rating of perceived exertion (RPE), salivary cortisol (SC), and salivary immunoglobulin (SIgA).  Results indicated higher stress in the championship match, as indicated by greater RPE, increased SC, and reduced SIgA. In other words, tasks seemed harder, overall stress was elevated, and immunity decreased. Filaire (2001) found similar results with judo athletes, noting that cortisol increased at an interregional competition as compared with a regional competition.  However, immunity was not significantly affected in this study, though many theorize that immunity may be indirectly affected by changes to these other stress markers.

In short, by simply attaching more importance to any result, our stress levels increase.  Added stress also increases vulnerability to illness, injury, and poor performance. These risk factors only multiply for championships when you factor in travel, midterms, and the next phase of life for high school and college seniors and even middle schoolers heading to high school.    

A similar trend emerges in studies comparing simulated competition with actual competition.  Moreira (2012) compared simulated basketball games with actual games and found increased RPE and SC levels in young elite males, but no change in immunity.  Another Moreira (2012) study looked at Brazilian Jiu Jitsu fighters and noted an increase in cortisol levels when comparing interregional competition (a higher level) with regional competition, but again no decrease in immunity.  Unlike other studies, RPE was not part of this analysis. 

CONCLUSION

Let’s not forget that higher stress may be a good thing when managed properly. Stress is part of the body’s fight or flight mechanisms and may stimulate career best performances.  Problems occur when stress lasts too long and when training inputs are incongruent with the body’s needs given the present stress levels. Coaches must recognize that stress is a tangible physiological phenomenon that can be harnessed for peak performance or alternatively trigger athletes into disappointment or breakdown. Though saliva samples are unrealistic for most teams, the research has validated other methods such as RPE that coaches can use to track athlete readiness during a potentially stressful championship season.    

REFERENCES

1. Moreira A, Crewther B, Freitas CG, Arruda AF, Costa EC, Aoki MS.  Session RPE and salivary immune-endocrine responses to simulated and official basketball matches in eliteyoung male athletes.  J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2012 Dec;52(6):682-7.
2. Filaire E, Sagnol M, Ferrand C, Maso F, Lac G.  Psychophysiological stress in judo athletes during competitions.  J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2001 Jun;41(2):263-8.
3. Moreira A, Freitas CG, Nakamura FY, Drago G, Drago M, Aoki MS. Effect of match importance on salivary cortisol and immunoglobulin a responses in elite young volleyball players. J Strength Cond Res. 2013 Jan;27(1):202-7. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31825183d9.
4. Moreira A, Franchini E, de Freitas CG, Schultz de Arruda AF, de Moura NR, Costa EC, Aoki MS. Salivary cortisol and immunoglobulin A responses to simulated and official Jiu-Jitsu matches.  J Strength Cond Res. 2012 Aug;26(8):2185-91. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31823b8702.

By Allan Phillips. Allan and his wife Katherine are heavily involved in the strength and conditioning community, for more information refer to Pike Athletics.

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Weekly Round-up

1. Preparticipation Cardiovascular Screening among NCAA Division I Institutions
2. Looking at the Literature: Perception of Recovery and Performance
3. Looking at the Literature: Post-Game Recovery, Perception and Performance
4. Adding movement to 'dry run' mental imagery enhances performance
5. MEN'S FREESTYLE STROKE TEMPOS
6. TOP NUTRITION TIPS FOR VEGAN SWIMMERS
7. Post-Workout Glycogen Repletion - The Role of Protein, Leucine, Phenylalanine and Insulin. Plus: Protein & Carbs How Much do You Actually Need After a Workout?
8. Blood Flow Restriction, Where Are We? "Don't Hold Your Breath", the Valsalva Maneuver Revisited. Ageless Growth, It's Never Too Late to Start. Plus: EMS as Recovery Tool & HIIT to Heal a Scarred Heart After Myocardial Infarctions
9. The low-carb, high fat diet debate and deviant thinking

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Shoulder Blade Contribution to Axial Rotation

The role of the shoulder blade during overhead movements is still being discovered. Despite the assumed role of the shoulder blade, research studies confirming the necessity of shoulder blade stability are still necessary (discussed in shoulder injury prevention). In swimming, the shoulder performs frequent overhead axial rotations, making understanding the role of the shoulder during axial rotation mandatory as it likely plays an essential role for injury prevention and force production. Luckily, Ribeiro (2012) et al. looked at the contribution of the shoulder blade at end-range shoulder rotation in overhead athletes. In this study, handball players without a history of pain and controls both performed a seated full-range internal and external rotation in the scapular plane with the humerus supported. The athletes utilized greater shoulder blade retraction and posterior tilting during external rotation.

These results suggest alterations in scapular kinematics occur during shoulder axial rotation in athletes compared to a control group. It is unclear if these adaptations occur to aid sporting success, decrease repetitive stress, or is simply an adaptation to repetitive injury, but one could speculate all three of these reasons play a role in this adaptation (Mullen 2013). The amount of scapular retraction is also greater in athletes, as Ribeiro states:

“the inability to retract the scapula, appears to impart several negative biomechanical effects on the shoulder structures, including a narrower subacromial space, reduced impingement-free, reduced strength of the glenohumeral muscles (Ribeiro 2012)”.

He further suggest healthy athletes:

“keep their scapula stable while the arm is fastly moved from a full external position to a full internal position. Scapular stabilization could be challenged when the arm motion is very (too) fast. Therefore, an inadequate scapular position at the end-range of glenohumeral motion will lead to shoulder dysfunction and pathology (Ribeiro 2012)”

Practical Implication
It seems shoulder adaptations are present at the shoulder-blade in overhead athletes during axial plane movement. It is imperative to provide strengthening exercises of the shoulder-blade in retraction and posterior tilting movements for shoulder-blade stability. Future studies must look at planes other than the scapular plane and without the arm supported (Mullen 2013). 

Ensure you are keeping you and your team healthy, as any injury deceases the likelihood of success, purchase the Swimmer's Shoulder System today.

References:

1. Ribeiro, A, Pascoal, AG. Scapular contribution for the end-range of shoulder axial rotation in overhead athletes. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2012) 11, 676-681.
2. Mullen, GJ. Swimming Science Research Review. (2013) 1: 9, 30.

By Dr. G. John Mullen founder of the Center of Optimal Restoration, head strength coach at Santa Clara Swim Club, creator of the Swimmer's Shoulder System, and chief editor of the Swimming Science Research Review.

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Radical Changes are in Order for Swimming Strength and Conditioning Coaches!

I often get asked about the quality of strength coaches in swimming. Unfortunately, I typically have poor remarks and considerations, most pronounced at the collegiate level. This is mainly from the fact that many strength coaches forget their work is intended to complement  the conditioning component of swimming, which should occur in the pool. A true strength AND conditioning coach must complement and understand the conditioning aspect which occurs in the pool. Yet, too many strength coaches are unfamiliar with the unique demands of the sport and provide swimmers a land-based approach for improvement. I'm not saying every strength coach must have swam or competed at an elite level in swimming, but they must be willing to learn about these nuances, spend time on deck, and appreciate the conditioning aspect of the sport. Moreover, strength coaches must look outside the box and acknowledge water-based sports and land-based sports have many differences, specifically the biomechanics and the lack of out-of-water strength correlating with in-water strength.

Opposingly, many coaches, with a background in swimming, do not know enough about strength principles resulting in abstract, nonsensical exercises.Too often these coaches administer conditioning techniques with the hopes of strength gains. Unfortunately, this can contribute to overtraining, injuries, and impaired swimming motor control.

Instead, strength and conditioning coaches must understand the conditioning aspect of the sport, learn the common flaws, and common weak, or injury ridden spots in the pool and then apply their strength training philosophies. Swim coaches must learn the principles of strength training or utilize outside resources who understand the aforementioned principles. As Dr. Rushall has said, “[R]adical changes in swimming coaching are in order!”

By Dr. G. John Mullen founder of the Center of Optimal Restoration, head strength coach at Santa Clara Swim Club, creator of the Swimmer's Shoulder System, and chief editor of the Swimming Science Research Review.

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Recovering from Injury: The Mental Side

Injuries are an inevitable part of competitive swimming no matter how robust our prevention and rehabilitation programs. We often discuss the mechanics of injury prevention and rehabilitation, but the psychological is also important.  Though many coaches prefer to wear the tough, authoritarian hat on deck, the softer side of dealing with injured athletes is an important skillset to have.  Nonetheless, athlete responses to injury can vary widely, from swimmers who won’t miss practice with a broken arm to others who beg out of practice with a paper cut.

Injury is not only a stress to body but also to the mind.  Evans (2012) noted that in addition to the physical stressors that cause injury, social and financial stressors will accompany any athletic setback.  With many swimmers spending more waking hours at the pool than anywhere else, their aquatic existence becomes part of their identity.  An injury robs them of that identity, which can be particularly troublesome for youngsters at socially vulnerable ages.  Finances can be equally stressful, with college scholarships and professional sponsorship potentially jeopardized.  Parents may add to frustration with pressure to validate a substantial investment into a swimming career.

Though direct causation is not certain, injury may also be tied with preexisiting psychological stress, There’s reason to believe that psychological factors may increase injury risk, but its still unclear what the exact mechanisms are. What is certain is that 
“psychological factors may also either hinder or facilitate rehabilitation adherence, compliance, and recovery.  Psychological distress may persist even after physical recovery has been completed.” Roh (2000). 

Doing all the right exercises important but is not enough; having the right attitude and an support network will increase a swimmer’s odds of a favorable rehab outcome.    

Podlog (2012) surveyed eight elite coaches in the Western Australian Institute of Sport and determined five crucial areas for coaches in the rehab process:

(a) coordination of a "team approach" to rehabilitation

(b) fostering open communication with athletes and treatment team members

(c) social support

(d) positive thinking and goal setting

(e) role models

These are all common sense areas but are often overlooked.  Communication is especially important and is a uniform theme in all of these recommendations.  Clement (2012) studied 49 injured athletes in D-II and D-III programs and found that social support from their ATC’s (athletic trainers) provided contributed significantly to overall well-being, as measured by eight types of support in a validated Social Support Survey.  Likewise, Judge (2012) studied 165 D-I athletes from six universities showed that strength and conditioning professionals had “significant psychosocial impact on student-athletes' overall psychological well-being during reconditioning.”   

PRACTICAL IMPLICATION

Strategies like specialized kick and drill sets (rather than “go kick around for 30 minutes”) can keep an injured swimmers mentally engaged when they are in the water.  It’s also important to not marginalize athletes from the team during injury even if they aren't completing normal practice.  During rehab exercises, set goals (no matter how small) and remind athletes that many swimmers before them have successfully returned to training and competition.  Most importantly, keep the lines of communication open during what can be a highly stressful period, especially for a young athlete inexperienced with setbacks.    

REFERENCES

1) Roh JL, Perna FM.  Psychology/Counseling: a universal competency in athletic training.  J Athl Train. 2000 Oct;35(4):458-65.

2) Evans L, Wadey R, Hanton S, Mitchell I.  Stressors experienced by injured athletes.  J Sports Sci. 2012 May;30(9):917-27. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2012.682078. Epub 2012 May 3.

3) Podlog L, Dionigi R.  Coach strategies for addressing psychosocial challenges during the return to sport from injury.  J Sports Sci. 2010 Sep;28(11):1197-208. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2010.487873.

4) Judge LW, Bellar D, Blom LC, Lee D, Harris B, Turk M, McAtee G, Johnson J.  Perceived social support from strength and conditioning coaches among injured student athletes.  J Strength Cond Res. 2012 Apr;26(4):1154-61. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31822e008b.

5) Clement D, Shannon VR.  Injured athletes' perceptions about social support.  J Sport Rehabil. 2011 Nov;20(4):457-70.

By Allan Phillips. Allan and his wife Katherine are heavily involved in the strength and conditioning community, for more information refer to Pike Athletics.

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Weekly Round-up

1. Sports Science Roundtable
2. Interview with Patrick Ward
3. Accelerate Gains by Overreaching
4. Creatine: All About The Go-To Sports Nutrition Supplement
5. Dr. Evan Osar and Brett Jones talk Corrective Exercise; Summit Preview- Episode 118
6. Long-term athlete development: Foundations & challenges
7. Vitamin D potency varies widely in dietary supplements, analysis finds
8. Science of Performance: Are Morning Workouts Worth Sleep
9. Keep Your Core Stable While Using Hamstrings With This Dryland Tip

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Friday Interview: Dr. Chia-Hua Kuo and Dr. Futoshi Ogita

This week our team had the opportunity to interview Dr. Kuo and Dr. Ogita about their latest new research on altitude training and swimming. This article was reviewed in the February Swimming Science Research Review which was released this morning! Don't forget to check out the article
and sign-up for today for the Swimming Science Research Review for only $10/month!

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1. Dr. Kuo, welcome back! We interviewed you on the subject of inflammation, any new information or research on this subject?
I may give you some of our data on how ginsenoside affect inflammation process and strength performance. Please wait until the data is published.

2. Sounds good, you recently published an article on the role high-altitude training, could you please summarize your results?

Altitude hypoxia prevents fat oxidation, but it has been consistently demonstrated that prolong hypoxia effectively decreases fat mass. Apparently, the fat reducing effect is not related fat burning. Instead, we found hypoxia caused an increased blood distribution towards skeletal muscle and heart (blood carrys insulin and glucose after meal) , which might explain the outcome of reciprocally increased heart and muscle weigts and decreased fat weight.

3. Based on the findings, how do you feel high-altitude training should be used for elite athletes?

It depends on the purpose. For correcting body composition, or for performance, Professor Futoshi Ogita in Japan can give you better answer.

Dr. Ogita: Altitude training has been conducted to improve VO2max and endurance performance for a long time.  However, many investigations have reported that VO2max did not improve after altitude training. As the reasons, it has been suggested that 1) oxidative enzyme activity in mitochondria decreased after the high altitude training, 2) cardiac output decreased by an increased hematocrit (blood viscosity), 3) hypoxia per se impairs absolute training intensity, 4) large individual differences in the ability to adapt to hypobaric hypoxic condition, and so on.
On the other hand, recent several studies including ours have indicated that anaerobic capacity (maximal accumulated o2 deficit) and muscle buffering capacity, and consequently short distance performance (50m, 100m, 200m) were improved more effectively after altitude training or LHTL (Living High-Training Low).  Therefore, we recommend that altitude training should be sude for short distance swimmer as a new training approach to improve anaerobic capacity and anaerobic performance more effectively.

4. Do you think the increase in lean body mass is significant for swimmers?

Very consistent across swimmers. More or less depending osubjects but no exception.

5. Who is doing the most interesting research on high-altitude training?

Dr. Ogita: Dr. Ferran A. Rodríguez in Barcelona (Spain)

6. If I were looking for the ideal hypoxic program, what would you suggest?

Dr. Ogita: Short distance interval at high-intensity (supramaximal intensity) training should be done.  In maximal swimming lasting ~1min, exercise performance in hypoxia is not reduced when compared to that in normoxia. Because decreased oxygen uptake during exercise is compensated by increased O2 deficit (anaerobic energy). It means that higher training stimulus is taxed to anaerobic energy process in hypoxia, and the higher training stimulus should induce greater training effect.

7. What are the most common mistakes you see in those performing high-altitude training?

1) hypoxia can limit training intensity; 2) return from altitude will encounter temperature problem that can harm performance.

8. What mistakes still exist in swimmers with high-altitude training?

Dr. Ogita: High volume and low intensity training. This is so called “aerobic training”.  However, it is no doubt that VO2max and training intensity (if it consists with long distance interval) decrease. Of course, LT (or AT or OBLA) training is also important.  However, such training can be done at higher intensity in normoxia.

9. Are the typical hypoxic training methods (underwaters, decreased breathing patterns) similar to high-altitude training?

Dr. Ogita: Very difficult.  It is not true hypoxic training, but hypercapnic training.  The breathlessness that swimmer feels is induced by hypercapnia, but not hypoxia.

10. Does high-altitude training result in improved swimming performance? Why?

Dr. Ogita: As altitude acclimatization occurs, arterial O2 content increases due to an increased arterial O2 saturation and polycythemia. Since VO2max is closely related to maximal systemic oxygen transport which is the product of maximal cardiac output and arterial O2 content, the increased arterial O2 content induced by altitude acclimatization would expect a concomitant increase in VO2max.The concept of LHTL (Living High-Training Low) is based on this hypothesis. As previously mentioned, VO2max does not improve necessarily after altitude training, however, the increased hemoglobin concentration and thus arterial O2 content with acclimatization would be helpful to increase VO2max if exercise training is done appropriately. Also, an increase in hemoglobin mass would contribute to increase buffering capacity in blood.
In addition, altitude training would be helpful to increase anaerobic capacity. Because, anaerobic capacity does not decrease by degree of hypoxia even though absolute exercise intensity is lowered (but relative intensity expressed as %VO2max is the same). Furthermore, exhaustive exercise performance lasting less than 1min is the same between normoxia and hypoxia, but anaerboc energy release is higher in hypoxic situation due to compensating decreased oxygen uptake.  The higher training stimulus to anaerobic energy process in hypoxia would contribute to improve anaerobic capacity with improvement of buffering capacity.

11. What research or projects are you currently working on or should we look from you in the future?

Response: 1) Ergogenic effect of deep ocean water; 2)  Ergogenic effect of pure ginsenosides and its molecular mechanism.

Thanks Drs.

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