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Joachim Stoeber

University of Kent, Psychology, Faculty Member

Address: University of Kent
School of Psychology
Canterbury
Kent CT2 7NP
United Kingdom
Email: J.Stoeber@kent.ac.uk

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Journal Articles

On the longitudinal interplay between perfectionism and general affect in adolescents [2021]

Cross-sectional studies on perfectionism and general affect tend to interpret their findings sugg... more Cross-sectional studies on perfectionism and general affect tend to interpret their findings suggesting affect is an outcome of perfectionism. However, personality theories posit that individual differences in general affect may also influence perfectionism. Expecting to find bidirectional relations, this 3-wave study sought to examine the longitudinal interplay between perfectionism and general affect in a sample of 489 adolescents (54% female) aged 12-19 years. Cross-lagged panel analyses showed a positive unidirectional effect from positive affect to perfectionistic standards as well as a positive bidirectional effect between perfectionistic concerns and negative affect. As expected, general affect was both an antecedent and an outcome of perfectionism. Implications of the findings for the development and outcomes of perfectionism are discussed.

The very best of me: Longitudinal associations of perfectionism and identity processes in adolescence [2021]

Personality and identity formation are intricately linked in adolescent development. The personal... more Personality and identity formation are intricately linked in adolescent development. The personality disposition of perfectionism has been associated with identity processes, but their longitudinal interplay in adolescence has not yet been investigated. This 4-wave study, with 5- to 6-month intervals between each wave (N = 744 Caucasian adolescents, M[age] = 15.2 years, 55% girls), examined associations between perfectionism (self-oriented and socially prescribed) and identity processes in the domain of future plans. Self-oriented perfectionism predicted increases in commitment making, identification with commitment, and exploration in depth. Socially prescribed perfectionism showed bidirectional positive relations with ruminative exploration. Exploration in depth predicted increases in socially prescribed perfectionism. Findings suggest that perfectionism is an important personality disposition in adolescent identity formation unfolding over time.

Becoming a perfectionistic adolescent: Perceived parental behaviors involved in developmental trajectories of perfectionism [2022]

Perfectionism is a pervasive and prevalent personality disposition with high implications for psy... more Perfectionism is a pervasive and prevalent personality disposition with high implications for psychological maladjustment. Adolescence represents a particularly relevant period for the development of perfectionism, and perceived parental behaviors have been shown to play an important part. Yet, so far only few longitudinal studies have investigated the role of risk and protective parental behaviors in the development of perfectionism in adolescents. Examining a sample of 744 adolescents (Mage = 15.2 years), the present study investigated developmental trajectories of self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism over 4 waves spaced 5-6 months apart. Results of growth mixture modeling showed that self-oriented perfectionism followed 3 developmental trajectories (low and decreasing; medium and decreasing; high and stable) as did socially prescribed perfectionism (low and stable; medium and increasing; high and stable). Other-oriented perfectionism showed 4 developmental trajectories (low and decreasing; low and stable; high and stable; high and increasing). Significant differences were observed between groups regarding all investigated perceived parental behaviors (psychological control, behavioral control, responsiveness, and autonomy support). Similarities and differences between the development of each form of perfectionism and the role of each parental behavior as well as implications of these findings for the understanding of the development of perfectionism in adolescence are discussed.

Perfectionism, self-stigma, and coping in students with dyslexia: The central role of perfectionistic self-presentation [2021]

Dyslexia is a prevalent condition, and a significant percentage of students in higher education a... more Dyslexia is a prevalent condition, and a significant percentage of students in higher education are dyslexic. Despite this, few studies have investigated dyslexia in university students and what personality dispositions may predict how students feel about help-seeking for dyslexia and how they cope with dyslexia. Against this background, the present study investigated perfectionism, self-stigma, and coping in 115 university students with dyslexia examining the relationships of dispositional perfectionism (self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism) and perfectionistic self-presentation with self-stigma of seeking help and adaptive versus maladaptive coping with dyslexia. Results from regression and mediation analyses showed that perfectionistic self-presentation predicted higher levels of self-stigma and maladaptive coping, and lower levels of adaptive coping. Furthermore, both forms of dispositional perfectionism predicted higher levels of self-stigma and maladaptive coping, and lower levels of adaptive coping, via perfectionistic self-presentation (dispositional perfectionism => perfectionistic self-presentation => self-stigma and coping). The findings suggest that perfectionistic self-presentation plays a central role in the relationships of perfectionism, self-stigma, and coping in students with dyslexia, and that impression management aimed at presenting a perfect self-image (and hiding imperfections) represents a significant risk for students’ seeking help for and successful coping with dyslexia.

Perfectionism and aggression following unintentional, ambiguous, and intentional provocation [2020]

The social disconnection model of perfectionism posits that perfectionism is positively related t... more The social disconnection model of perfectionism posits that perfectionism is positively related to various indicators of social disconnection including hostility and aggression. Recent findings, however, indicate that only other-oriented and socially-prescribed perfectionism are positively related to aggression, not self-oriented perfectionism. The present study (N = 271) further examined the perfectionism–aggression relationships using social vignettes differentiating aggression following unintentional, ambiguous, and intentional provocation. Results showed that—when the overlap between the perfectionism dimensions was controlled—only other-oriented perfectionism showed positive relationships with aggression across provocation situations. In contrast, socially prescribed perfectionism showed a positive relationship only with aggression following unintentional provocation, and self-oriented perfectionism showed a negative relationship. The findings suggest that, whereas people high in self-oriented perfectionism tend to be unaggressive, people high in other-oriented perfectionism have a general tendency toward aggression, and people high in socially prescribed perfectionism show a hostile attribution bias.

Perfectionism and interpersonal problems revisited [2021]

In 1997, Hill and colleagues published a seminal study investigating the interpersonal quality of... more In 1997, Hill and colleagues published a seminal study investigating the interpersonal quality of self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism using the interpersonal circumplex as a framework. Findings indicated the three forms of perfectionism showed different relationships with both interpersonal traits and interpersonal problems, but also suggested that these relationships were gender-specific. Revisiting Hill et al.’s findings, the present study reexamined how the three forms of perfectionism related to interpersonal traits and problems, and tested whether the relationships also showed reliable gender differences, in a sample of 391 Prolific workers (195 men, 196 women; mean age = 37.1 years). Circumplex analyses confirmed the three forms of perfectionism showed different relationships with interpersonal traits and problems. However, the relationships with interpersonal traits were stronger and more differentiated than those with interpersonal problems, and only socially prescribed perfectionism showed elevated levels of interpersonal distress. Whereas only few reliable gender differences were observed, self-oriented perfectionism had a distinctive interpersonal quality (assured–dominant) in men, but not in women. Results are discussed in relation to theory and research on perfectionism and personality, the expanded perfectionism social disconnection model, and conceptions of other-oriented perfectionism as a “dark” form of perfectionism.

The vegan resistance [2021]

What drives people to lash out at others who choose to eschew eating animals out of compassion? A... more

Perfectionism is adaptive and maladaptive, but what's the combined effect? [2020]

According to the two-factor model of perfectionism, perfectionism is comprised of two higher-orde... more According to the two-factor model of perfectionism, perfectionism is comprised of two higher-order dimensions — perfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC) — that typically show different, often opposing relationships with adaptive and maladaptive outcomes. Consequently, if we define perfectionism as the combination of PS and PC, it would be important to know what the “combined effect” of perfectionism is, and whether the combined effect is adaptive or maladaptive. Following the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010), we define the combined effect of perfectionism as the difference between mixed perfectionism (the combination of high PS and high PC) and non-perfectionism (the combination of low PS and low PC). Applying the regression approach for testing the 2 × 2 model (Gaudreau, 2012), we show how the combined effect may be computed, and then illustrate combined effects for different patterns of correlations of PS, PC, and an outcome Y. In addition, we present examples from the research literature where PS and PC show zero, adaptive, and maladaptive combined effects. We conclude the article by discussing how our concept of a combined effect can be extended to perfectionism models with more than two factors, and also address limitations and open questions.

Perfectionism, (self-)compassion, and subjective well-being: A mediation model [2020]

Perfectionism has shown negative relationships with self-compassion and subjective well-being (SW... more Perfectionism has shown negative relationships with self-compassion and subjective well-being (SWB), but perfectionism is multidimensional and not all dimensions may show these negative relationships. Moreover, it is unclear whether low self-compassion mediates the negative relationships of multidimensional perfectionism with SWB, and whether low compassion for others plays an additional role. This study (N = 309) examined these relationships in a mediation model. Self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism showed negative relationships with self-compassion, and other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism showed negative relationships with compassion for others whereas self-oriented perfectionism showed a positive relationship. Furthermore, both self-compassion and compassion for others positively predicted SWB, and both fully mediated the perfectionism–SWB relationships. The findings suggest that (self-)compassion may explain why some dimensions of perfectionism show negative relationships with SWB.

Development of perfectionism in junior athletes: A three-sample study of coach and parental pressure [2019]

Perfectionism predicts cognitions, emotions, and behaviors in sport. Nonetheless, our understandi... more Perfectionism predicts cognitions, emotions, and behaviors in sport. Nonetheless, our understanding of the factors that influence its development is limited. We sought to address this issue by examining the role of coach and parental pressure in the development of perfectionism in sport. Using three samples of junior athletes (16-19 years; cross-sectional: N = 212; 3-month longitudinal: N = 101; 6-month longitudinal: N = 110), we examined relations between coach pressure to be perfect, parental pressure to be perfect, perfectionistic strivings, and perfectionistic concerns. Mini meta-analysis of the combined cross-sectional data (N = 423) showed that both coach pressure and parental pressure were positively correlated with perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. In contrast, longitudinal analyses showed that only coach pressure predicted increased perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns over time. Overall, our findings provide preliminary evidence that coaches may play a more important role in the development of junior athletes’ perfectionism than parents.

Perfectionism and the five-factor model of personality: A meta-analytic review [2019]

Over 25 years of research suggests an important link between perfectionism and personality traits... more Over 25 years of research suggests an important link between perfectionism and personality traits included in the five-factor model (FFM). However, inconsistent findings, underpowered studies, and a plethora of perfectionism scales have obscured understanding of how perfectionism fits within the FFM. We addressed these limitations by conducting the first meta-analytic review of the relationships between perfectionism and FFM traits (k = 77, N = 24,789). Meta-analysis with random effects revealed perfectionistic concerns (socially prescribed perfectionism, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, discrepancy) were characterized by neuroticism (rc+ = .50), low agreeableness (rc+ = –.26), and low extraversion (rc+ = –.24); perfectionistic strivings (self-oriented perfectionism, personal standards, high standards) were characterized by conscientiousness (rc+ = .44). Several perfectionism-FFM relationships were moderated by gender, age, and the perfectionism subscale used. Findings complement theory suggesting perfectionism has neurotic and non-neurotic dimensions. Results also underscore that the (mal)adaptiveness of perfectionistic strivings hinges on instrumentation.

Perfectionism and training performance: The mediating role of other-approach goals [2018]

Recent research found perfectionistic strivings to predict performance in a novel basketball task... more Recent research found perfectionistic strivings to predict performance in a novel basketball task among novice basketball players. The current study builds on this research by examining whether this is also the case for performance in a familiar basketball training task among experienced basketball players, and whether achievement goals mediated any observed relationships. Perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, and 3 × 2 achievement goals were assessed prior to basketball training performance in 90 basketball players (mean age 20.9 years). Regression analyses showed that perfectionistic strivings predicted better performance. Furthermore, mediation analyses showed that other-approach goals (e.g., beliefs that one should and can outperform others) accounted for this relationship. The findings suggest that perfectionistic strivings may predict better performance in both novel and familiar athletic contexts. In addition, beliefs about the importance and ability to outperform others may explain this relationship.

Eating disorder symptoms and the 2 x 2 model of perfectionism: Mixed perfectionism is the most maladaptive combination [2019]

Purpose: The 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010) represents an important add... more Purpose: The 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010) represents an important addition to the perfectionism literature, but so far has not been studied in relation to disordered eating. Method: Using the 2 × 2 model as analytic framework, this study examined responses from a convenience sample of 716 participants aged 19-68 years (71% female) investigating how self-oriented perfectionism (SOP) and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) predicted individual differences in eating disorder symptoms, additionally controlling for body mass index, gender, and age. Results: Results showed a significant SOP × SPP interaction indicating that the combination of high SOP and high SPP―called “mixed perfectionism”―was associated with the highest levels of eating disorder symptoms. Conclusions: The findings demonstrate the utility of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism as an analytic framework for examining perfectionism and disordered eating. Moreover, they suggest that mixed perfectionism is the most maladaptive form of perfectionism, when it comes to disordered eating, such that having high levels of SPP combined with high levels of SOP represents the most maladaptive combination of perfectionism in terms of risk of eating disorder.

Multidimensional perfectionism and counterfactual thinking: Some think upward, others downward [2017]

Perfectionism is a personality disposition that can be expected to explain individual differences... more Perfectionism is a personality disposition that can be expected to explain individual differences in counterfactual thinking. Yet, research on perfectionism and counterfactual thinking is very limited, and findings are mixed. The present study (N = 175 university students) investigated the relationships between perfectionism and counterfactual thinking after imagining a negative outcome (i.e., receiving a bad grade). Self-oriented perfectionism showed positive relationships with upward counterfactuals (imagining better outcomes) and negative relationships with downward counterfactuals (imagining worse outcomes). In contrast, socially prescribed perfectionism showed positive relationships with downward counterfactuals. The findings suggest that counterfactual thinking in self-oriented perfectionism aims at self-improvement and motivates for future better outcomes—at the cost of increased negative affect—whereas counterfactual thinking in socially prescribed perfectionism aims at mood repair.

Perfectionism, social disconnection, and interpersonal hostility: Not all perfectionists don't play nicely with others [2017]

The perfectionism social disconnection model (PSDM; Hewitt, Flett, Sherry, & Caelian, 2006) makes... more The perfectionism social disconnection model (PSDM; Hewitt, Flett, Sherry, & Caelian, 2006) makes an important contribution to perfectionism research explaining why perfectionism is associated with social disconnection and interpersonal hostility. Moreover, recent expansions of the PSDM suggest that the model applies to all forms of perfectionism. The present research challenges this suggestion. Three university student samples (Ns = 318, 417, and 398) completed measures of self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism together with measures of trust, empathy, and hostility including aggression, anger, and spitefulness. In line with previous studies examining unique relationships of the three forms of perfectionism, only other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism showed a consistent pattern of unique relationships indicative of social disconnection and hostility. In contrast, self-oriented perfectionism showed unique relationships indicative of social connection (and low hostility regarding physical aggression and spitefulness). The present findings indicate that the PSDM may not apply to all forms of perfectionism. Not all perfectionists feel socially disconnected and hostile towards others. Self-oriented perfectionists may feel socially connected and show no higher hostility than non-perfectionists, particularly when they are low in other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism.

Perfectionism predicts injury in junior athletes: Preliminary evidence from a prospective study [2018]

According to the stress-injury model (Williams & Andersen, 1998), personality factors predisposin... more According to the stress-injury model (Williams & Andersen, 1998), personality factors predisposing athletes to elevated levels of stress may increase the risk of injury. As perfectionism has been associated with chronic stress, it may be one such personality factor. So far, however, no study has investigated the relationships between perfectionism and injury utilising a prospective design. Therefore, the present study examined perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, and injury in 80 junior athletes from team and individual sports (mean age 17.1 years, range 16-19 years) over 10 months of active training. The results of logistic regression analyses showed that perfectionism positively predicted injury, but only perfectionistic concerns emerged as a significant positive predictor. The likelihood of sustaining an injury was increased by over 2 times for each 1 SD increase in perfectionistic concerns. The findings suggest that perfectionistic concerns may be a possible factor predisposing athletes to an increased risk of injury.

Belief in a just world for oneself versus others, social goals, and subjective well-being [2017]

The belief in a just world (BJW) affects subjective well-being and social behavior. However, its ... more The belief in a just world (BJW) affects subjective well-being and social behavior. However, its role in shaping the social goals that underlie behavior has not been investigated. Informed by the bidimensional model of BJW, the present study examined the relations of BJW for the self (BJW-self) versus BJW for other people (BJW-others) with social goals and subjective well-being in a sample of 398 university students. As predicted, BJW-self was positively related to affiliative social goals including nurturance, intimacy, and social development goals. In contrast, BJW-others was positively related to dominance and social demonstration goals. Consistent with the bidimensional model, BJW-self and BJW-others were related to most social goals in opposing directions. The present findings indicate that BJW-self and BJW-others is not only relevant to how people act in relation to others, but also why they act the way they do.

Perfectionistic concerns predict increases in adolescents’ anxiety symptoms: A three-wave longitudinal study [2017]

Background and Objectives: Although perfectionism has been proposed to be a risk factor for the d... more Background and Objectives: Although perfectionism has been proposed to be a risk factor for the development of anxiety, research on perfectionism and anxiety symptoms in adolescents is scarce and inconclusive. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the two higher-order dimensions of perfectionism—perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns—predict the development and maintenance of anxiety symptoms. An additional aim of the present study was to examine potential reciprocal effects of anxiety symptoms predicting increases in perfectionism. Design: The study used a longitudinal design with three waves spaced 4-5 months apart. Methods: A non-clinical sample of 489 adolescents aged 12-19 years completed a paper-and-pencil questionnaire. Results: As expected, results showed a positive effect from perfectionistic concerns to anxiety symptoms, but the effect was restricted to middle-to-late adolescents (16-19 years old): Perfectionistic concerns predicted longitudinal increases in adolescents’ anxiety symptoms whereas perfectionistic strivings did not. Furthermore, anxiety symptoms did not predict increases in perfectionism. Conclusions: Implications for the understanding of the relationship between perfectionism and anxiety symptoms are discussed.

Perfectionism and achievement goals revisited: The 3 × 2 achievement goal framework [2017]

Objectives: Perfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC) have shown different... more Objectives: Perfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC) have shown different profiles with the 2 × 2 achievement goals in sport. Whether PS and PC also show comparable profiles with the achievement goals of the expanded 3 × 2 framework, however, is unclear. Design: Cross-sectional. Method: We examined self-reported perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, and the 3 × 2 achievement goals in 136 junior athletes (mean age 17.0 years). Results: The results of structural equation modeling showed that PS were positively associated with task-, self-, and other-approach goals and negatively with task- and self-avoidance goals. In contrast, PC were positively associated with task-, self-, and other-avoidance goals and negatively with task- and self-approach goals. Conclusions: The findings suggest that PS and PC show different profiles also with the 3 × 2 achievement goals which may help explain why the two perfectionism dimensions show differential relations with achievement-related outcomes in sport.

Perfectionism and school engagement: A three-wave longitudinal study [2017]

Although perfectionism is a personality disposition that plays an important role in educational c... more Although perfectionism is a personality disposition that plays an important role in educational contexts, research on perfectionism and school engagement is limited. School engagement is a key process in predicting educational outcomes in students. Consequently, it is important to know how perfectionism relates to school engagement and whether perfectionism predicts relative changes in school engagement over time. Using a sample of 486 students from 6th-12th grade (54% female) and employing a longitudinal design with three waves spaced 4-5 months apart, the present study investigated whether perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns) predicted relative changes in students’ school engagement (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement). Results showed that both perfectionistic strivings and concerns were related to school engagement, but only perfectionistic strivings predicted relative increases in school engagement. Implications for the understanding of how perfectionistic strivings contribute to school students’ engagement are discussed.

On the longitudinal interplay between perfectionism and general affect in adolescents [2021]

Cross-sectional studies on perfectionism and general affect tend to interpret their findings sugg... more Cross-sectional studies on perfectionism and general affect tend to interpret their findings suggesting affect is an outcome of perfectionism. However, personality theories posit that individual differences in general affect may also influence perfectionism. Expecting to find bidirectional relations, this 3-wave study sought to examine the longitudinal interplay between perfectionism and general affect in a sample of 489 adolescents (54% female) aged 12-19 years. Cross-lagged panel analyses showed a positive unidirectional effect from positive affect to perfectionistic standards as well as a positive bidirectional effect between perfectionistic concerns and negative affect. As expected, general affect was both an antecedent and an outcome of perfectionism. Implications of the findings for the development and outcomes of perfectionism are discussed.

The very best of me: Longitudinal associations of perfectionism and identity processes in adolescence [2021]

Personality and identity formation are intricately linked in adolescent development. The personal... more Personality and identity formation are intricately linked in adolescent development. The personality disposition of perfectionism has been associated with identity processes, but their longitudinal interplay in adolescence has not yet been investigated. This 4-wave study, with 5- to 6-month intervals between each wave (N = 744 Caucasian adolescents, M[age] = 15.2 years, 55% girls), examined associations between perfectionism (self-oriented and socially prescribed) and identity processes in the domain of future plans. Self-oriented perfectionism predicted increases in commitment making, identification with commitment, and exploration in depth. Socially prescribed perfectionism showed bidirectional positive relations with ruminative exploration. Exploration in depth predicted increases in socially prescribed perfectionism. Findings suggest that perfectionism is an important personality disposition in adolescent identity formation unfolding over time.

Becoming a perfectionistic adolescent: Perceived parental behaviors involved in developmental trajectories of perfectionism [2022]

Perfectionism is a pervasive and prevalent personality disposition with high implications for psy... more Perfectionism is a pervasive and prevalent personality disposition with high implications for psychological maladjustment. Adolescence represents a particularly relevant period for the development of perfectionism, and perceived parental behaviors have been shown to play an important part. Yet, so far only few longitudinal studies have investigated the role of risk and protective parental behaviors in the development of perfectionism in adolescents. Examining a sample of 744 adolescents (Mage = 15.2 years), the present study investigated developmental trajectories of self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism over 4 waves spaced 5-6 months apart. Results of growth mixture modeling showed that self-oriented perfectionism followed 3 developmental trajectories (low and decreasing; medium and decreasing; high and stable) as did socially prescribed perfectionism (low and stable; medium and increasing; high and stable). Other-oriented perfectionism showed 4 developmental trajectories (low and decreasing; low and stable; high and stable; high and increasing). Significant differences were observed between groups regarding all investigated perceived parental behaviors (psychological control, behavioral control, responsiveness, and autonomy support). Similarities and differences between the development of each form of perfectionism and the role of each parental behavior as well as implications of these findings for the understanding of the development of perfectionism in adolescence are discussed.

Perfectionism, self-stigma, and coping in students with dyslexia: The central role of perfectionistic self-presentation [2021]

Dyslexia is a prevalent condition, and a significant percentage of students in higher education a... more Dyslexia is a prevalent condition, and a significant percentage of students in higher education are dyslexic. Despite this, few studies have investigated dyslexia in university students and what personality dispositions may predict how students feel about help-seeking for dyslexia and how they cope with dyslexia. Against this background, the present study investigated perfectionism, self-stigma, and coping in 115 university students with dyslexia examining the relationships of dispositional perfectionism (self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism) and perfectionistic self-presentation with self-stigma of seeking help and adaptive versus maladaptive coping with dyslexia. Results from regression and mediation analyses showed that perfectionistic self-presentation predicted higher levels of self-stigma and maladaptive coping, and lower levels of adaptive coping. Furthermore, both forms of dispositional perfectionism predicted higher levels of self-stigma and maladaptive coping, and lower levels of adaptive coping, via perfectionistic self-presentation (dispositional perfectionism => perfectionistic self-presentation => self-stigma and coping). The findings suggest that perfectionistic self-presentation plays a central role in the relationships of perfectionism, self-stigma, and coping in students with dyslexia, and that impression management aimed at presenting a perfect self-image (and hiding imperfections) represents a significant risk for students’ seeking help for and successful coping with dyslexia.

Perfectionism and aggression following unintentional, ambiguous, and intentional provocation [2020]

The social disconnection model of perfectionism posits that perfectionism is positively related t... more The social disconnection model of perfectionism posits that perfectionism is positively related to various indicators of social disconnection including hostility and aggression. Recent findings, however, indicate that only other-oriented and socially-prescribed perfectionism are positively related to aggression, not self-oriented perfectionism. The present study (N = 271) further examined the perfectionism–aggression relationships using social vignettes differentiating aggression following unintentional, ambiguous, and intentional provocation. Results showed that—when the overlap between the perfectionism dimensions was controlled—only other-oriented perfectionism showed positive relationships with aggression across provocation situations. In contrast, socially prescribed perfectionism showed a positive relationship only with aggression following unintentional provocation, and self-oriented perfectionism showed a negative relationship. The findings suggest that, whereas people high in self-oriented perfectionism tend to be unaggressive, people high in other-oriented perfectionism have a general tendency toward aggression, and people high in socially prescribed perfectionism show a hostile attribution bias.

Perfectionism and interpersonal problems revisited [2021]

In 1997, Hill and colleagues published a seminal study investigating the interpersonal quality of... more In 1997, Hill and colleagues published a seminal study investigating the interpersonal quality of self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism using the interpersonal circumplex as a framework. Findings indicated the three forms of perfectionism showed different relationships with both interpersonal traits and interpersonal problems, but also suggested that these relationships were gender-specific. Revisiting Hill et al.’s findings, the present study reexamined how the three forms of perfectionism related to interpersonal traits and problems, and tested whether the relationships also showed reliable gender differences, in a sample of 391 Prolific workers (195 men, 196 women; mean age = 37.1 years). Circumplex analyses confirmed the three forms of perfectionism showed different relationships with interpersonal traits and problems. However, the relationships with interpersonal traits were stronger and more differentiated than those with interpersonal problems, and only socially prescribed perfectionism showed elevated levels of interpersonal distress. Whereas only few reliable gender differences were observed, self-oriented perfectionism had a distinctive interpersonal quality (assured–dominant) in men, but not in women. Results are discussed in relation to theory and research on perfectionism and personality, the expanded perfectionism social disconnection model, and conceptions of other-oriented perfectionism as a “dark” form of perfectionism.

The vegan resistance [2021]

What drives people to lash out at others who choose to eschew eating animals out of compassion? A... more

Perfectionism is adaptive and maladaptive, but what's the combined effect? [2020]

According to the two-factor model of perfectionism, perfectionism is comprised of two higher-orde... more According to the two-factor model of perfectionism, perfectionism is comprised of two higher-order dimensions — perfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC) — that typically show different, often opposing relationships with adaptive and maladaptive outcomes. Consequently, if we define perfectionism as the combination of PS and PC, it would be important to know what the “combined effect” of perfectionism is, and whether the combined effect is adaptive or maladaptive. Following the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010), we define the combined effect of perfectionism as the difference between mixed perfectionism (the combination of high PS and high PC) and non-perfectionism (the combination of low PS and low PC). Applying the regression approach for testing the 2 × 2 model (Gaudreau, 2012), we show how the combined effect may be computed, and then illustrate combined effects for different patterns of correlations of PS, PC, and an outcome Y. In addition, we present examples from the research literature where PS and PC show zero, adaptive, and maladaptive combined effects. We conclude the article by discussing how our concept of a combined effect can be extended to perfectionism models with more than two factors, and also address limitations and open questions.

Perfectionism, (self-)compassion, and subjective well-being: A mediation model [2020]

Perfectionism has shown negative relationships with self-compassion and subjective well-being (SW... more Perfectionism has shown negative relationships with self-compassion and subjective well-being (SWB), but perfectionism is multidimensional and not all dimensions may show these negative relationships. Moreover, it is unclear whether low self-compassion mediates the negative relationships of multidimensional perfectionism with SWB, and whether low compassion for others plays an additional role. This study (N = 309) examined these relationships in a mediation model. Self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism showed negative relationships with self-compassion, and other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism showed negative relationships with compassion for others whereas self-oriented perfectionism showed a positive relationship. Furthermore, both self-compassion and compassion for others positively predicted SWB, and both fully mediated the perfectionism–SWB relationships. The findings suggest that (self-)compassion may explain why some dimensions of perfectionism show negative relationships with SWB.

Development of perfectionism in junior athletes: A three-sample study of coach and parental pressure [2019]

Perfectionism predicts cognitions, emotions, and behaviors in sport. Nonetheless, our understandi... more Perfectionism predicts cognitions, emotions, and behaviors in sport. Nonetheless, our understanding of the factors that influence its development is limited. We sought to address this issue by examining the role of coach and parental pressure in the development of perfectionism in sport. Using three samples of junior athletes (16-19 years; cross-sectional: N = 212; 3-month longitudinal: N = 101; 6-month longitudinal: N = 110), we examined relations between coach pressure to be perfect, parental pressure to be perfect, perfectionistic strivings, and perfectionistic concerns. Mini meta-analysis of the combined cross-sectional data (N = 423) showed that both coach pressure and parental pressure were positively correlated with perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. In contrast, longitudinal analyses showed that only coach pressure predicted increased perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns over time. Overall, our findings provide preliminary evidence that coaches may play a more important role in the development of junior athletes’ perfectionism than parents.

Perfectionism and the five-factor model of personality: A meta-analytic review [2019]

Over 25 years of research suggests an important link between perfectionism and personality traits... more Over 25 years of research suggests an important link between perfectionism and personality traits included in the five-factor model (FFM). However, inconsistent findings, underpowered studies, and a plethora of perfectionism scales have obscured understanding of how perfectionism fits within the FFM. We addressed these limitations by conducting the first meta-analytic review of the relationships between perfectionism and FFM traits (k = 77, N = 24,789). Meta-analysis with random effects revealed perfectionistic concerns (socially prescribed perfectionism, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, discrepancy) were characterized by neuroticism (rc+ = .50), low agreeableness (rc+ = –.26), and low extraversion (rc+ = –.24); perfectionistic strivings (self-oriented perfectionism, personal standards, high standards) were characterized by conscientiousness (rc+ = .44). Several perfectionism-FFM relationships were moderated by gender, age, and the perfectionism subscale used. Findings complement theory suggesting perfectionism has neurotic and non-neurotic dimensions. Results also underscore that the (mal)adaptiveness of perfectionistic strivings hinges on instrumentation.

Perfectionism and training performance: The mediating role of other-approach goals [2018]

Recent research found perfectionistic strivings to predict performance in a novel basketball task... more Recent research found perfectionistic strivings to predict performance in a novel basketball task among novice basketball players. The current study builds on this research by examining whether this is also the case for performance in a familiar basketball training task among experienced basketball players, and whether achievement goals mediated any observed relationships. Perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, and 3 × 2 achievement goals were assessed prior to basketball training performance in 90 basketball players (mean age 20.9 years). Regression analyses showed that perfectionistic strivings predicted better performance. Furthermore, mediation analyses showed that other-approach goals (e.g., beliefs that one should and can outperform others) accounted for this relationship. The findings suggest that perfectionistic strivings may predict better performance in both novel and familiar athletic contexts. In addition, beliefs about the importance and ability to outperform others may explain this relationship.

Eating disorder symptoms and the 2 x 2 model of perfectionism: Mixed perfectionism is the most maladaptive combination [2019]

Purpose: The 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010) represents an important add... more Purpose: The 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010) represents an important addition to the perfectionism literature, but so far has not been studied in relation to disordered eating. Method: Using the 2 × 2 model as analytic framework, this study examined responses from a convenience sample of 716 participants aged 19-68 years (71% female) investigating how self-oriented perfectionism (SOP) and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) predicted individual differences in eating disorder symptoms, additionally controlling for body mass index, gender, and age. Results: Results showed a significant SOP × SPP interaction indicating that the combination of high SOP and high SPP―called “mixed perfectionism”―was associated with the highest levels of eating disorder symptoms. Conclusions: The findings demonstrate the utility of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism as an analytic framework for examining perfectionism and disordered eating. Moreover, they suggest that mixed perfectionism is the most maladaptive form of perfectionism, when it comes to disordered eating, such that having high levels of SPP combined with high levels of SOP represents the most maladaptive combination of perfectionism in terms of risk of eating disorder.

Multidimensional perfectionism and counterfactual thinking: Some think upward, others downward [2017]

Perfectionism is a personality disposition that can be expected to explain individual differences... more Perfectionism is a personality disposition that can be expected to explain individual differences in counterfactual thinking. Yet, research on perfectionism and counterfactual thinking is very limited, and findings are mixed. The present study (N = 175 university students) investigated the relationships between perfectionism and counterfactual thinking after imagining a negative outcome (i.e., receiving a bad grade). Self-oriented perfectionism showed positive relationships with upward counterfactuals (imagining better outcomes) and negative relationships with downward counterfactuals (imagining worse outcomes). In contrast, socially prescribed perfectionism showed positive relationships with downward counterfactuals. The findings suggest that counterfactual thinking in self-oriented perfectionism aims at self-improvement and motivates for future better outcomes—at the cost of increased negative affect—whereas counterfactual thinking in socially prescribed perfectionism aims at mood repair.

Perfectionism, social disconnection, and interpersonal hostility: Not all perfectionists don't play nicely with others [2017]

The perfectionism social disconnection model (PSDM; Hewitt, Flett, Sherry, & Caelian, 2006) makes... more The perfectionism social disconnection model (PSDM; Hewitt, Flett, Sherry, & Caelian, 2006) makes an important contribution to perfectionism research explaining why perfectionism is associated with social disconnection and interpersonal hostility. Moreover, recent expansions of the PSDM suggest that the model applies to all forms of perfectionism. The present research challenges this suggestion. Three university student samples (Ns = 318, 417, and 398) completed measures of self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism together with measures of trust, empathy, and hostility including aggression, anger, and spitefulness. In line with previous studies examining unique relationships of the three forms of perfectionism, only other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism showed a consistent pattern of unique relationships indicative of social disconnection and hostility. In contrast, self-oriented perfectionism showed unique relationships indicative of social connection (and low hostility regarding physical aggression and spitefulness). The present findings indicate that the PSDM may not apply to all forms of perfectionism. Not all perfectionists feel socially disconnected and hostile towards others. Self-oriented perfectionists may feel socially connected and show no higher hostility than non-perfectionists, particularly when they are low in other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism.

Perfectionism predicts injury in junior athletes: Preliminary evidence from a prospective study [2018]

According to the stress-injury model (Williams & Andersen, 1998), personality factors predisposin... more According to the stress-injury model (Williams & Andersen, 1998), personality factors predisposing athletes to elevated levels of stress may increase the risk of injury. As perfectionism has been associated with chronic stress, it may be one such personality factor. So far, however, no study has investigated the relationships between perfectionism and injury utilising a prospective design. Therefore, the present study examined perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, and injury in 80 junior athletes from team and individual sports (mean age 17.1 years, range 16-19 years) over 10 months of active training. The results of logistic regression analyses showed that perfectionism positively predicted injury, but only perfectionistic concerns emerged as a significant positive predictor. The likelihood of sustaining an injury was increased by over 2 times for each 1 SD increase in perfectionistic concerns. The findings suggest that perfectionistic concerns may be a possible factor predisposing athletes to an increased risk of injury.

Belief in a just world for oneself versus others, social goals, and subjective well-being [2017]

The belief in a just world (BJW) affects subjective well-being and social behavior. However, its ... more The belief in a just world (BJW) affects subjective well-being and social behavior. However, its role in shaping the social goals that underlie behavior has not been investigated. Informed by the bidimensional model of BJW, the present study examined the relations of BJW for the self (BJW-self) versus BJW for other people (BJW-others) with social goals and subjective well-being in a sample of 398 university students. As predicted, BJW-self was positively related to affiliative social goals including nurturance, intimacy, and social development goals. In contrast, BJW-others was positively related to dominance and social demonstration goals. Consistent with the bidimensional model, BJW-self and BJW-others were related to most social goals in opposing directions. The present findings indicate that BJW-self and BJW-others is not only relevant to how people act in relation to others, but also why they act the way they do.

Perfectionistic concerns predict increases in adolescents’ anxiety symptoms: A three-wave longitudinal study [2017]

Background and Objectives: Although perfectionism has been proposed to be a risk factor for the d... more Background and Objectives: Although perfectionism has been proposed to be a risk factor for the development of anxiety, research on perfectionism and anxiety symptoms in adolescents is scarce and inconclusive. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the two higher-order dimensions of perfectionism—perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns—predict the development and maintenance of anxiety symptoms. An additional aim of the present study was to examine potential reciprocal effects of anxiety symptoms predicting increases in perfectionism. Design: The study used a longitudinal design with three waves spaced 4-5 months apart. Methods: A non-clinical sample of 489 adolescents aged 12-19 years completed a paper-and-pencil questionnaire. Results: As expected, results showed a positive effect from perfectionistic concerns to anxiety symptoms, but the effect was restricted to middle-to-late adolescents (16-19 years old): Perfectionistic concerns predicted longitudinal increases in adolescents’ anxiety symptoms whereas perfectionistic strivings did not. Furthermore, anxiety symptoms did not predict increases in perfectionism. Conclusions: Implications for the understanding of the relationship between perfectionism and anxiety symptoms are discussed.

Perfectionism and achievement goals revisited: The 3 × 2 achievement goal framework [2017]

Objectives: Perfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC) have shown different... more Objectives: Perfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC) have shown different profiles with the 2 × 2 achievement goals in sport. Whether PS and PC also show comparable profiles with the achievement goals of the expanded 3 × 2 framework, however, is unclear. Design: Cross-sectional. Method: We examined self-reported perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, and the 3 × 2 achievement goals in 136 junior athletes (mean age 17.0 years). Results: The results of structural equation modeling showed that PS were positively associated with task-, self-, and other-approach goals and negatively with task- and self-avoidance goals. In contrast, PC were positively associated with task-, self-, and other-avoidance goals and negatively with task- and self-approach goals. Conclusions: The findings suggest that PS and PC show different profiles also with the 3 × 2 achievement goals which may help explain why the two perfectionism dimensions show differential relations with achievement-related outcomes in sport.

Perfectionism and school engagement: A three-wave longitudinal study [2017]

Although perfectionism is a personality disposition that plays an important role in educational c... more Although perfectionism is a personality disposition that plays an important role in educational contexts, research on perfectionism and school engagement is limited. School engagement is a key process in predicting educational outcomes in students. Consequently, it is important to know how perfectionism relates to school engagement and whether perfectionism predicts relative changes in school engagement over time. Using a sample of 486 students from 6th-12th grade (54% female) and employing a longitudinal design with three waves spaced 4-5 months apart, the present study investigated whether perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns) predicted relative changes in students’ school engagement (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement). Results showed that both perfectionistic strivings and concerns were related to school engagement, but only perfectionistic strivings predicted relative increases in school engagement. Implications for the understanding of how perfectionistic strivings contribute to school students’ engagement are discussed.

The psychology of perfectionism: Critical issues, open questions, and future directions [2018]

In this concluding chapter, I follow the approach of the introductory chapter in taking a persona... more In this concluding chapter, I follow the approach of the introductory chapter in taking a personal perspective to discuss what I see are critical issues, open questions, and future directions in perfectionism research. Because all chapters of this book address open questions and future directions, I only discuss topics that the chapters did not cover or that I would like to emphasize again. These include the definition and measurement of perfectionism, the question of whether perfectionism is a trait or a disposition, the need for more longitudinal studies, and the search for mediators and moderators. Further, I make a call for more research on perfectionism going beyond self-reports and point to three areas that I believe are “under-researched”: perfectionism at work; ethnic, cultural, and national differences in perfectionism; and perfectionism across the lifespan. Moreover, I address three critical issues that I find problematic because they may present obstacles to further progress in our understanding of perfectionism: focusing on perfectionistic concerns (and ignoring perfectionistic strivings), employing cluster analyses to investigate differences in multidimensional perfectionism, and assessing perfectionism with measures that do not measure perfectionism.

The psychology of perfectionism: An introduction [2018]

Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality disposition characterized by striving for flawles... more Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality disposition characterized by striving for flawlessness and setting exceedingly high standards of performance accompanied by overly critical evaluations of one’s behavior. Perfectionism is a complex characteristic. It comes in different forms and has various aspects. This chapter has a dual purpose: It aims to serve as an introduction to “The Psychology of Perfectionism” (the edited book you are holding in your hands) and an introduction to the psychology of perfectionism (what the book is about). To these aims, I first present a brief history of perfectionism theory and research. Then I introduce the two-factor theory of perfectionism—differentiating perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns—with the intention to provide readers with a conceptual framework that may serve as a “compass” guiding them through the different models and measures of perfectionism they will encounter in this book. Going beyond the two-factor model, I next introduce three aspects of perfectionism that are important for a comprehensive understanding of perfectionism: other-oriented perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation, and perfectionism cognitions. The chapter will conclude with a brief overview of the organization of the book and the contents of the individual chapters.

Perfectionism: A motivational perspective [2018]

The chapter presents a review of the research literature examining perfectionism from a motivatio... more The chapter presents a review of the research literature examining perfectionism from a motivational perspective. Taking the two-factor model of perfectionism—differentiating the two higher-order dimensions of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns—as a basis, we present analyses of the differential relationships that the two dimensions show with key motivational constructs focusing on achievement motivation and self-determination theory. As regards achievement motivation, we examine the relationships with achievement motives (hope of success and fear of failure) and achievement goals (task and ego goals, 2 × 2 and 3 × 2 achievement goals). As regards self-determination theory, we examine the relationships with autonomous and controlled motivation and with the different regulatory styles associated with intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. Based on the findings of our review, we propose that the differential motivational qualities of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns are important to understand why perfectionism is a “double-edged sword” that may energize or paralyze people, motivating some perfectionists to engage and others to disengage. We conclude that perfectionism research may profit from seeing perfectionism from a motivational perspective, perhaps even regard perfectionism as a motive disposition (need for perfection) whereby perfectionistic strivings represent the approach-oriented and autonomous aspects, and perfectionistic concerns the avoidance-oriented and controlled aspects.

Perfectionism and personality [2018]

This chapter provides a synopsis of research on where multidimensional perfectionism " fits " wit... more This chapter provides a synopsis of research on where multidimensional perfectionism " fits " within the broader framework of contemporary personality theory. Focusing on Hewitt and Flett's (1991) model of perfectionism--differentiating self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism--the chapter presents a summary and critical discussion of how multidimensional perfectionism relates to the dimensions and facets of two major structural models of personality (the five-factor model and the HEXACO model) and one neuropsychological model of personality (reinforcement sensitivity theory). Implications of the findings for multidimensional theories and models of perfectionism, as well as future perfectionism research, are discussed.

Perfectionism [2020]

Whereas clinical psychology regards perfectionism as a personality disposition associated with ps... more Whereas clinical psychology regards perfectionism as a personality disposition associated with psychopathology and mental health problems, research in personality and individual differences found perfectionism to be a multidimensional disposition that has adaptive and maladaptive aspects. The present entry presents an overview of the two-factor model of perfectionism—differentiating perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns as two superordinate dimensions of multidimensional perfectionism—and of how the two factors show different relations with motivation and performance. Furthermore, the entry introduces other-oriented perfectionism as a “dark” form of perfectionism separate from perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concern. The entry concludes with a discussion of open questions and directions for future research.

Perfectionism [2018]

Perfectionism has been associated with higher levels of psychological maladjustment and disorder ... more Perfectionism has been associated with higher levels of psychological maladjustment and disorder in adolescence and lower levels of subjective well-being and psychological adjustment. Perfectionism, however, is a multidimensional disposition, and not all dimensions of perfectionism are necessarily unhealthy or maladaptive. This entry presents an overview about perfectionism in adolescence and the main dimensions of perfectionism: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. It shows how the two dimensions are related to subjective well-being, psychological adjustment and maladjustment, and disorder. Moreover, it informs on how perfectionism can be measured and what factors influence the development of perfectionism in children and adolescents. Finally, the entry will discuss what is still unknown about perfectionism and why the notion that perfectionism can be healthy or adaptive is controversially debated.

Measuring perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise: Review, critique, recommendations [2016]

Over the past 25 years, a number of multidimensional measures of perfectionism has been developed... more Over the past 25 years, a number of multidimensional measures of perfectionism has been developed. Based on different models of multidimensional perfectionism, these measures contain different numbers of subscales, and most of the time the different subscales bear different names. This presents a confusing situation to researchers unfamiliar with the often complex details of the perfectionism literature who want to conduct research on perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise and need to make a decision as to what measure to use to capture individual differences in multidimensional perfectionism. The aim of the present chapter is to give researchers some guidance in this decision. To this aim, the chapter will (a) review the available multidimensional measures that have been published in international peer-reviewed journals and (b) provide a critique of these measures. In addition, the chapter will provide (c) recommendations on which measures to use and guidance on which decisions researchers have to make when using these measures to capture perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise.

Perfectionism in employees: Work engagement, workaholism, and burnout [2016]

Perfectionism is a prevalent personality disposition that may affect all domains of life. Work is... more Perfectionism is a prevalent personality disposition that may affect all domains of life. Work is an important domain of life for many people. Yet, research on perfectionism at work and how perfectionism affects employees’ health and well-being is still limited. Research, however, has investigated perfectionism’s relationships with three key aspects of peoples’ working lives that are closely associated with employees’ health and well-being: work engagement, workaholism, and job burnout. Differentiating between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber & Otto, 2006), the present chapter presents an overview of the relevant research findings. Taken together, the findings suggest that (a) perfectionistic strivings show positive relationships with work engagement whereas perfectionistic concerns show no relationships or negative relationships, (b) perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns both show positive relationships with workaholism, and (c) perfectionistic strivings show negative relationships with burnout whereas perfectionistic concerns show positive relationships. To explain the opposite relationships that perfectionistic strivings and concerns show with burnout, two hypothetical models are presented. In Model 1, autonomous versus controlled motivation explain the opposite relationships of perfectionistic strivings and concerns with burnout. In Model 2, adaptive versus maladaptive coping explain the relationships. The chapter concludes with directions for future research on perfectionism, work engagement, workaholism, and job burnout pointing out the importance of longitudinal studies and intervention studies.

Perfectionism [2014]

Perfectionism is a personality disposition characterized by striving for flawlessness and setting... more Perfectionism is a personality disposition characterized by striving for flawlessness and setting exceedingly high standards for performance, accompanied by tendencies for overly critical evaluations. It is a disposition that may pervade all areas of life, particularly areas in which performance plays as major role (e.g., work, school). Therefore, it comes as no surprise that perfectionism is a common characteristic in competitive athletes.

Perfectionism and performance [2012]

Perfectionism is a personality disposition related to individual differences in performance in sp... more Perfectionism is a personality disposition related to individual differences in performance in sport, school, and other areas of life where performance, tests, and competition play a major role. This chapter discusses the importance of differentiating two main dimensions of perfectionism—perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns—when examining the relationships between perfectionism and performance in sport, academics, music competitions, aptitude tests, and laboratory tasks. The chapter presents studies showing that perfectionistic strivings are positively associated with performance and predict higher performance beyond people’s general aptitude and previous performance level. In contrast, the studies do not show that perfectionistic concerns are consistently negatively associated with performance. To conclude the chapter, implications for applied psychology are discussed as are open questions for future research regarding issues such as the development of perfectionism, performance and efficiency, and gender differences.

Perfectionism [2011]

Perfectionism has been associated with higher levels of psychological maladjustment and disorder ... more Perfectionism has been associated with higher levels of psychological maladjustment and disorder in adolescence and lower levels of subjective well-being and psychological adjustment. Perfectionism, however, is a multidimensional disposition, and not all dimensions of perfectionism are necessarily unhealthy and maladaptive. This entry presents an overview about perfectionism in adolescence and the main dimensions of perfectionism: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. It shows how the two dimensions are related to subjective well-being, psychological adjustment and maladjustment, and disorder. Moreover, it informs on how perfectionism can be measured and what factors influence the development of perfectionism in children and adolescents. Moreover, it will discuss what is still unknown about perfectionism and why the notion that perfectionism can be healthy or adaptive is controversially debated.

Belief in a just world and adolescents' vocational and social goals [2004]

Suppose you are a teenager about to start your final year of school. You need to think about what... more Suppose you are a teenager about to start your final year of school. You need to think about what you want to do with the rest of your life and what professional training to go for. What would you base your decision on? Of course, it is important to do something you enjoy--so how about becoming a professional football player, a rock star, or supermodel? It's a nice idea, but you also need to consider your chances of success. Can you really make it in your chosen profession? Because if you discover too late that you cannot, you will have lost precious time...

Forschung zur Schülerpersönlichkeit [2004]

Die Forschung zur Schülerpersönlichkeit ist Teil der Pädagogischen Psychologie und der Persönlich... more Die Forschung zur Schülerpersönlichkeit ist Teil der Pädagogischen Psychologie und der Persönlichkeitspsychologie. "Persönlichkeitspsychologie ist die empirische Wissenschaft von den überdauernden, nichtpathologischen, verhaltensrelevanten individuellen Besonderheiten von Menschen" (Asendorpf 1996, S. 11), und Persönlichkeit wird durch individuelle Muster von mehr oder minder stabilen Eigenschaften beschrieben (vgl. Pekrun 1983). Diese Eigenschaften können unterschiedlich global und unterschiedlich stabil sein. Zu den bereichsunspezifischen Personmerkmalen gehören etwa globale Persönlichkeitseigenschaften wie Neurotizismus oder der Selbstwert. Die globalen Persönlichkeitseigenschaften sind als sehr stabil gedacht. Im Gegensatz dazu kann sich der Selbstwert einer Person unter bestimmten Bedingungen ändern. Ausmaß und zeitlicher Umfang der Stabilität eines Personmerkmals variiert also unabhängig von dem Ausmaß an Globalität eines Personmerkmals. Alle Personmerkmale gemeinsam beschreiben die Persönlichkeit eines Individuums. Die Schülerpersönlichkeit unterscheidet sich nicht von der Persönlichkeit von Kindern und Jugendlichen. Vielmehr wird mit dem Terminus Schülerpersönlichkeit das Wechselspiel zwischen Persönlichkeitsentwicklung und Schulfaktoren angesprochen (Pekrun 1983). Diesen schulbezogenen Persönlichkeitsmerkmalen werden wir in diesem Kapitel nachgehen.

Mit dem Thema Angst haben sich die klassischen Schulen der Psychologie schon seit langem befaßt: ... more Mit dem Thema Angst haben sich die klassischen Schulen der Psychologie schon seit langem befaßt: die Psychoanalyse (z. B. Freud, 1895/1971) mit ihren tiefenpsychologischen Betrachtungen, der Behaviorismus (z. B. Mowrer, 1939) mit seinen Reiz-Reaktions-Analysen sowie die Kognitive Psychologie (z. B. Eysenck, 1992), die seit Ende der 60er Jahre in der Psychologie die vorherrschende Rolle spielt. Letztere betrachtet vor allem Einschätzungen und Informationsverarbeitungsprozesse. Dazu gehört auch die kognitiv-transaktionale Theorie von Streß und Emotionen, die Richard Lazarus (1966, 1991) hervorgebracht hat und die seit über drei Jahrzehnten große Verbreitung und Anerkennung gefunden hat. Nach dieser Theorie entstehen Emotionen aufgrund kognitiver Einschätzungsprozesse. Nicht die kritische Situation an sich löst Gefühle aus, sondern deren subjektive Interpretation. In streßreichen Anforderungssituationen nehmen Menschen eine zweifache kognitive Einschätzung vor, und zwar eine Ereigniseinschätzung (primary appraisal) und damit gleichzeitig eine Ressourceneinschätzung (secondary appraisal). Dieser Vorgang, der nicht unmittelbar bewußt ablaufen muß, endet typischerweise mit einer Bewertungskategorie wie z. B. Herausforderung, Bedrohung oder Schaden/Verlust. Die Angstemotion resultiert dann, wenn sich Bedrohung als die dominante Einschätzungskategorie ergibt (Lazarus, 1991; Schwarzer, 1993). Daran schließen sich Bewältigungsprozesse sowie Neueinschätzungen an. Nach diesem Ansatz ist Angst also eine spezifische, kognitiv vermittelte Emotion im Rahmen einer Streßepisode. Daneben gibt es eine Reihe weiterer aktueller Ansätze, in denen wichtige Differenzierungen des Angstkonstrukts vorgenommen werden, die im folgenden dargestellt werden.

Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale [2000]

The Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS) is a multidimensional self-report scale of ... more The Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS) is a multidimensional self-report scale of perfectionism. It contains a total of 35 items. These are subsumed to the following six subscales: Concern over Mistakes (CM; 9 items), Personal Standards (PS; 7 items), Parental Expectations (PE; 5 items), Parental Criticism (PC; 4 items), Doubts about actions (D; 4 items), and Organization (O; 6 items). The first five subscales represent the core dimensions of the FMPS whereas the subscale Organization was found to be only loosely related to the other subscales. Consequently, Frost et al. recommended to exclude O when calculating total scores (see Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990, pp. 454-456). With this, the FMPS total score is based on 29 items. All items are scored in the direction of perfectionism. With a five-point answer scale from Strongly disagree (1) to Strongly agree (5), the potential range of FMPS total scores is 29-145.

Penn State Worry Questionnaire [2000]

The Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) is a self-report scale of pathological worry. It contai... more The Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) is a self-report scale of pathological worry. It contains 16 items that cover excessiveness, duration, uncontrollability and associated distress of worry as experienced by clients diagnosed with GAD (e.g., "Many situations make me worry"; "I find it easy to dismiss worrisome thoughts", reverse-scored). Of the 16 items, 5 are reverse-scored. With a five-point answer scale from Not at all typical of me (1) to Very typical of me (5), the potential range of PSWQ total scores is 16-80. Reference values for nonclinical, analog, and clinical groups can be found in Molina and Borkvoc (1994; see also Gillis, Haaga, & Ford, 1995).

Worry, thoughts, and images: A new conceptualization [2000]

The present chapter addresses the relations between worry, thoughts, and images. It is organized ... more The present chapter addresses the relations between worry, thoughts, and images. It is organized into three parts. Part 1 outlines T. D. Borkovec’s avoidance theory of worry, namely that worry reduces aversive imagery. Part 2 considers two mechanisms by which worry may reduce imagery, namely limitation of processing resources and verbal abstraction. Moreover, as there is little evidence for the first, but some evidence for the latter, Part 2 presents a new conceptual model of the relations between worry, thoughts, and images. Part 3 presents a brief outline beyond anxiety research on how avoidance theory and the verbal abstraction hypothesis may relate to the phenomenon of ruminative coping with depression.

Besorgnis, Besorgtheit, Generalisiertes Angstsyndrom: Neue Forschungen zum Thema "Worry" [1997]

In H. Mandl (Hrsg.), Bericht über den 40. Kongreß der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Psychologie in München 1996 (S. 451-457). Göttingen: Hogrefe.

Mitte der 60er Jahre fanden Liebert und Morris (1967), daß sich Prüfungsangst faktorenanalytisch ... more Mitte der 60er Jahre fanden Liebert und Morris (1967), daß sich Prüfungsangst faktorenanalytisch in zwei Komponenten aufteilen ließ, eine emotionale Komponente und eine kognitive. Morris und Liebert (1970) konnten in der Folge zeigen, daß für die unter Prüfungsangst zu beobachtenden Leistungsdefizite vor allem die kognitive Angstkomponente--"Worry" (Besorgnis)--von Bedeutung war, während die emotionale Komponente alleine Leistungsunterschiede nicht aufklären konnte. In den folgenden zwei Jahrzehnten erwies sich Besorgnis als ein für die kognitive Angstforschung äußerst fruchtbares Konstrukt. Inzwischen muß, zumindest im Bereich der Prüfungsangst, Besorgnis als ein in bezug auf Ursachen, Korrelate und Interventionen gut erforschtes Phänomen betrachtet werden (vgl. z.B. die Metaanalyse von Hembree, 1988). Anfang der 80er Jahre bekam die Besorgnisforschung einen neuen Impuls, diesmal von seiten der klinischen Psychologie. Besorgnis wurde in die dritte, revidierte Fassung des "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM-III-R; American Psychiatric Association, 1987) als Differentialkriterium aufgenommen, mit dem sich das Generalisierte Angstsyndrom (GAS) von anderen Angststörungen unterscheiden ließ. Zwar wurden im DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) viele Merkmale des GAS revidiert bzw. anders gewichtet; Worry jedoch blieb als das zentrale Kriterium erhalten und hat durch den Wegfall anderer Merkmale sogar an Gewicht gewonnen. Mit dieser Revision der Kriterien ist das GAS inzwischen eine reliabel diagnostizierbare Störung geworden (Wittchen, Kessler, Zhao & Abelson, 1995). Deren Ätiologie ist jedoch noch wenig geklärt, und auch GAS-spezifische Therapieverfahren sind erst in Ansätzen vorhanden (s. Becker, 1995).

Anxiety and the regulation of complex problem situations: Playing it safe? [1996]

According to Schönpflug, an ecologically valid model of behavioral regulation should contain ante... more According to Schönpflug, an ecologically valid model of behavioral regulation should contain antecedent, focal, and consequential problem variables while allowing for a classification of primary versus auxiliary actions. To study individual differences in dynamic problem solving, the task simulation RISK is introduced. Within this task, highly anxious subjects were expected to demonstrate a greater safety expertise because of a hypothesized tendency to focus on risks and modify them. The results, however, indicated a preference for a more narrow focus: Highly anxious subjects directed their regulatory efforts primarily to focal and consequential problem variables. Yet, in RISK, this was a safe and also successful strategy.

Social Desirability Scale-17 (SDS-17)

The Big Three Perfectionism Scale (BTPS)

Multidimensional Inventory of Perfectionism in Sport (MIPS): English version [2006]

English translation of the original German version: Stoeber, J., Otto, K., & Stoll, O. (2004). Me... more English translation of the original German version: Stoeber, J., Otto, K., & Stoll, O. (2004). Mehrdimensionales Inventar zu Perfektionismus im Sport (MIPS) [Multidimensional Inventory of Perfectionism in Sport (MIPS)]. In J. Stoeber, K. Otto, E. Pescheck, & O. Stoll, Skalendokumentation "Perfektionismus im Sport" (Hallesche Berichte zur Pädagogischen Psychologie Nr. 7). Halle/Saale, Germany: Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg, Department of Educational Psychology.

Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale – Stöber (1998)

The Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990, ... more The Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990, Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 449-568) provides six subscales for a multidimensional assessment of perfectionism: Concern over Mistakes (CM), Personal Standards (PS), Parental Expectations (PE), Parental Criticism (PC), Doubts about actions (D), and Organization (O). Despite its increasing popularity in personality and clinical research, the FMPS has also drawn some criticism for its factorial instability across samples. The present article argues that this instability may be due to an overextraction of components. Whereas all previous analyses presented six-factor solutions for the FMPS items, a reanalysis with Horn's parallel analysis suggested only four or five underlying factors. To investigate the nature of these factors, item responses from N = 243 participants were subjected to principal component analysis. Again, parallel analysis retained only four components. Varimax rotation replicated PS and O as separate factors, whereas combining CM with D as well as PE with PC. Consequently, the present article suggests a reduction to four (instead of six) FMPS subscales. Differential correlations with anxiety, depression, parental representations, and action tendencies underscore the advantage of this solution.

Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-Deutsch (1995)

Die Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-Deutsch (FMPS-D; Stöber, 1995) ist die deutsche Ve... more Die Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-Deutsch (FMPS-D; Stöber, 1995) ist die deutsche Version der Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale von Frost, Marten, Lahart und Rosenblate
(1990) und erfasst Perfektionismus entlang der von Frost et al. (1990) vorgeschlagenen sechs Dimensionen: Sorge über Fehler (engl.: Concern over Mistakes, CM), Handlungszweifel (Doubts about Actions, D), Elterliche Erwartungen (Parental Expectations, PE), Elterliche Kritik (Parental Criticism, PC), Persönliche Ansprüche (Personal Standards, PS) und Organisation (Organization, O).

What (others think) your favorite color tells about your personality: An interpersonal circumplex analysis [2000]

So far, psychological research has found little evidence for a relationship between personality a... more So far, psychological research has found little evidence for a relationship between personality and color preference. In folk psychology, however, it is a widely held belief that a person's color preferences may give insights into his or her personality as, for example, is demonstrated by the popularity of the famous-infamous Lüscher Test. Using Wiggins' interpersonal circumplex as a nomological net (Gurtman, 1992; Wiggins & Broughton, 1991), two studies are presented investigating assumptions about interpersonal characteristics that people make when given information about a person's favorite color.

Comparing two work-engagement scales: Relationships with job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and workaholism [2013]

Although research on work engagement has made great progress over the past 10 years, how best to ... more Although research on work engagement has made great progress over the past 10 years, how best to measure work engagement is still an open question. The aim of the present study was to compare two multidimensional scales measuring work engagement: the popular and widely used Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2003) capturing vigor, dedication and absorption and the newly developed ISA Engagement Scale (ISAES; Soane, Truss, Alfes, Shantz, Rees, & Gatenby, 2012) capturing intellectual, affective, and social engagement. When examining the intercorrelations of the scales’ total and subscale scores and their relationships with job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and workaholism in a sample of 130 employees, results showed that—even though UWES and ISAES total and subscale scores showed considerable overlap—they captured unique variance in the outcome variables, indicating that the two scales tap different aspects of engagement. Based on the present and previous findings (Soane et al., 2012), we recommend to use both scales when measuring work engagement to capture all aspects of the construct and gain a better understanding of how different aspects of work engagement contribute to outcomes that are of key interest to organizational and occupational psychology.

The psychology of perfectionism: Theory, research, applications [2018]

This milestone text provides a comprehensive and state-of-the art overview of perfectionism theor... more This milestone text provides a comprehensive and state-of-the art overview of perfectionism theory, research, and treatment from the past 25 years, with contributions from the leading researchers in the field. The book examines new theories and perspectives including the social disconnection model of perfectionism and the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism. It also reviews empirical findings, with a special focus on stress, vulnerability, and resilience, and examines perfectionism in specific populations. Finally, it considers how perfectionism relates to physical health and psychophysiological processes and introduces new approaches to effective prevention and treatment. By increasing our understanding of perfectionism as a complex personality disposition and providing a framework for future explorations, this landmark publication aims to promote further research in this field. It will be invaluable reading for academics, students, and professionals in personality psychology, clinical and counselling psychology, applied psychology and related disciplines.