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Nuclear energy policy

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Eight German nuclear power reactors (Biblis A and B, Brunsbuettel, Isar 1, Kruemmel, Neckarwestheim 1, Philippsburg 1 and Unterweser) were permanently shutdown on 6 August 2011, following the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster in Japan.[1][failed verification]

Nuclear energy policy is a national and international policy concerning some or all aspects of nuclear energy and the nuclear fuel cycle, such as uranium mining, ore concentration, conversion, enrichment for nuclear fuel, generating electricity by nuclear power, storing and reprocessing spent nuclear fuel, and disposal of radioactive waste. Nuclear energy policies often include the regulation of energy use and standards relating to the nuclear fuel cycle. Other measures include efficiency standards, safety regulations, emission standards, fiscal policies, and legislation on energy trading, transport of nuclear waste and contaminated materials, and their storage. Governments might subsidize nuclear energy and arrange international treaties and trade agreements about the import and export of nuclear technology, electricity, nuclear waste, and uranium.

Since about 2001 the term nuclear renaissance has been used to refer to a possible nuclear power industry revival, but nuclear electricity generation in 2012 was at its lowest level since 1999.[2][3] Since then it had increased back to 2,653 TWh in 2021, a level last seen in 2006. The share of nuclear power in electricity production however is at a historic low and now below 10% down from a maximum of 17.5% in 1996.[4]

Following the March 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents, China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, and the Philippines are reviewing their nuclear power programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants.[5][6][7][8] Thirty-one countries operate nuclear power stations, and there are a considerable number of new reactors being built in China, South Korea, India, and Russia.[9] As of June 2011, countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, Israel, Malaysia, and Norway have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power.[10][11]

Since nuclear energy and nuclear weapons technologies are closely related, military aspirations can act as a factor in energy policy decisions. The fear of nuclear proliferation influences some international nuclear energy policies.

The global picture

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The number of nuclear power plant constructions started each year, from 1954 to 2013. Note the increase in new constructions from 2007 to 2010, before a decline following the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.

After 1986's Chernobyl disaster, public fear of nuclear power led to a virtual halt in reactor construction, and several countries decided to phase out nuclear power altogether.[12] However, increasing energy demand was believed to require new sources of electric power, and rising fossil fuel prices coupled with concerns about greenhouse gas emissions (see Climate change mitigation) have sparked heightened interest in nuclear power and predictions of a nuclear renaissance.

In 2004, the largest producer of nuclear energy was the United States with 28% of worldwide capacity, followed by France (18%) and Japan (12%).[13] In 2007, 31 countries operated nuclear power plants.[14]: 6  In September 2008 the IAEA projected nuclear power to remain at a 12.4% to 14.4% share of the world's electricity production through 2030.[15]

After the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster some countries decided to permanently shut down their nuclear power reactors and fewer nuclear power plants constructions were constructed in the following years.

Asia is expected to be the primary growth market for nuclear energy in the foreseeable future. As of 2025, 80% of nuclear reactors under construction globally are in Asia.[16]

Policy issues

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Nuclear concerns

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Nuclear accidents and radioactive waste disposal are major concerns.[17] Other concerns include nuclear proliferation, the high cost of nuclear power plants, and nuclear terrorism.[17]

Energy security

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For some countries, nuclear power affords energy independence. In the words of the French, "We have no coal, we have no oil, we have no gas, we have no choice."[18] Japan—similarly lacking in indigenous natural resources for power supply—relied on nuclear power for 1/3 of its energy mix prior to the Fukushima nuclear disaster; since March 2011, Japan has sought to offset the loss of nuclear power with increased reliance on imported liquefied natural gas, which has led to the country's first trade deficits in decades.[19] Therefore, the discussion of a future for nuclear energy is intertwined with a discussion of energy security and the use of energy mix, including renewable energy development.[citation needed]

Nuclear power has been relatively unaffected by embargoes, and uranium is mined in "reliable" countries, including Australia and Canada.[18][20]

Many commentators have criticized Germany's Energiewende policy, which involved shutting down its nuclear power plants after the Fukushima disaster and relying instead on renewable energy sources. This transition made the country heavily dependent on Russian gas.[21] In response to Russia's decision to cut gas supplies, Germany has increased coal production[22] while keeping two nuclear plants on standby.[23]

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Olkiluoto 3 under construction in 2009. It is the first EPR design, but problems with workmanship and supervision have created costly delays which led to an inquiry by the Finnish nuclear regulator STUK.[24] In December 2012, Areva estimated that the full cost of building the reactor will be about €8.5 billion, or almost three times the original delivery price of €3 billion.[25][26][27]

Proponents have long made hopeful projections of the expected growth of nuclear power, but major accidents, and a well funded anti-nuclear lobby have kept costs high and growth much lower. In 1973 and 1974, the International Atomic Energy Agency predicted a worldwide installed nuclear capacity of 3,600 to 5,000 gigawatts by 2000. The IAEA's 1980 projection was for 740 to 1,075 gigawatts of installed capacity by the year 2000. Even after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, the Nuclear Energy Agency forecasted an installed nuclear capacity of 497 to 646 gigawatts for the year 2000. The actual capacity in 2000 was 356 gigawatts. Moreover, construction costs have often been much higher, and times much longer than projected, failing to meet optimistic projections of “unlimited cheap, clean, and safe electricity.”[28]

Since about 2001 the term nuclear renaissance has been used to refer to a possible nuclear power industry revival, driven by rising fossil fuel prices and new concerns about meeting greenhouse gas emission limits.[3] However, nuclear electricity generation in 2012 was at its lowest level since 1999,[2] and new reactors under construction in Finland and France, which were meant to lead a nuclear renaissance,[29] have been delayed and are running over-budget.[29][30][31] China has 32 new reactors under construction,[32] and there are also a considerable number of new reactors being built in South Korea, India, and Russia. At the same time, at least 100 older and smaller reactors will "most probably be closed over the next 10-15 years".[9] So the expanding nuclear programs in Asia are balanced by retirements of aging plants and nuclear reactor phase-outs.[33]

In March 2011 the nuclear emergencies at Japan's Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and shutdowns at other nuclear facilities raised questions among some commentators over the future of the renaissance.[34][35][36][37][38] Platts has reported that "the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world".[39] China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, Italy[40] and the Philippines have reviewed their nuclear power programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants.[5][6][7][8] Countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Portugal, Israel, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Norway remain opposed to nuclear power. Following the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, the International Energy Agency halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity built by 2035.[41]

Following the Fukushima nuclear disaster, Germany permanently shut down eight of its reactors and pledged to close the rest by 2022.[42] In 2011 Siemens exited the nuclear power sector following the changes to German energy policy, and supported the German government's planned energy transition to renewable energy technologies.[43] The Italians voted overwhelmingly to keep their country non-nuclear.[44] Switzerland and Spain have banned the construction of new reactors.[45] Japan's prime minister called for a dramatic reduction in Japan's reliance on nuclear power.[46] Taiwan's president did the same. Mexico has sidelined construction of 10 reactors in favor of developing natural-gas-fired plants.[47] Belgium decided to phase out its nuclear plants.[45]

China—nuclear power's largest prospective market—suspended approvals of new reactor construction while conducting a lengthy nuclear-safety review.[38][48] In 2012 a new safety plan for nuclear power was approved by State Council, and full incorporation of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safety standards became explicit. In the 13th Five-Year Plan from 2016, six to eight nuclear reactors were to be approved each year. A draft of the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-2025) released in March 2021 showed government plans to reach 70 GWe gross of nuclear capacity by the end of 2025.[49]

Neighboring India, another potential nuclear boom market, has encountered effective local opposition, growing national wariness about foreign nuclear reactors, and a nuclear liability controversy that threatens to prevent new reactor imports. There have been mass protests against the French-backed 9900 MW Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and the 2000 MW Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu. The state government of West Bengal state has also refused permission to a proposed 6000 MW facility near the town of Haripur that intended to host six Russian reactors.[50] In March 2018, the government stated that nuclear capacity would fall well short of its 63 GWe target and that the total nuclear capacity is likely to be about 22.5 GWe by the year 2031.[51]

Following IPCC announcements climate concerns again started to dominate world opinion. With rising oil and gas prices in 2022, many countries are reconsidering nuclear power.

In October 2021 the Japanese cabinet approved the new Plan for Electricity Generation to 2030 prepared by the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (ANRE) and an advisory committee, following public consultation. The nuclear target for 2030 of 20-22% is unchanged from that in the 2015 plan, but renewables increase greatly to 36-38%, including geothermal and hydro. Hydrogen and ammonia are included at 1%. The plan would require the restart of another ten reactors. Prime minister Fumio Kishida in July 2022 announced that the country should consider building advanced reactors and extending operating licences beyond 60 years.[52]

In March 2022 Belgium delayed its plans to phase out nuclear energy by a decade. The prime minister said that two reactors (Doel 4 and Tihange 3) would continue operating to 2035 to “strengthen our county’s independence from fossil fuels in a turbulent geopolitical environment.” In June Engie said it was seeking financial aid from the government for the continued operation of the two reactors.[53]

Climate Change and the Energy Transition

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Eliminating fossil fuels is essential in solving the climate change crisis. Nuclear power has one of the lowest life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions.[54][55] Historically, nuclear power has prevented 64 gigatonnes of CO2-equivalent greenhouse-gas emissions between 1971 and 2009.[56] With a significant amount of renewable energy installed in the 21st century, it has been speculated that tensions between nuclear and renewable national energy development strategies might reduce their effectiveness in terms of climate change mitigation.[57] However, newer studies have refuted this idea. Both nuclear and renewable energy have shown equally effective in the prevention of greenhouse-gas emissions.[58][59] An effective climate-change mitigation strategy may include both nuclear and renewable energy sources.[60] In 2018 the IPCC provided advice to policymakers giving four illustrative model pathways to limit warming to 1.5 degrees. In each of these pathways nuclear energy generation increased between 98% and 501% over 2010 levels by 2050.[61]

In 2021 the European Union Joint Research Centre issued the results of its study on whether nuclear power generation meets the criteria of its Green Taxonomy. The analyses did not reveal any science-based evidence that nuclear energy does more harm to human health or to the environment than other electricity production technologies already included in the EU Green Taxonomy as activities supporting climate change mitigation.[62] As a result of this assessment, the EU Parliament voted to include nuclear energy in its Green Taxonomy.[63]

Moreover, nuclear energy has such a low carbon footprint that it could power carbon dioxide capture and transformation,[64] resulting in a carbon-negative process. Specifically, various organizations are working across the globe to create designs for small modular reactors, a type of nuclear fission reactor that is smaller than conventional reactors. Some of these companies include ARC Nuclear[65] in Canada, CNEA in Denmark, Areva TA in France, Toshiba and JAERI in Japan, OKB Gidropress in Russia, and OPEN100[66] and X-energy[67] in the United States.

Policies by territory

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See also

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References

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  1. ↑ IAEA (2011). "Power Reactor Information System". Archived from the original on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 11 October 2013.
  2. 1 2 "Nuclear power down in 2012". World Nuclear News. 20 June 2013. Archived from the original on 24 June 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
  3. 1 2 "The Nuclear Renaissance". World Nuclear Association. August 2011. Archived from the original on 2 March 2013. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
  4. ↑ Schneider, Mycle; Froggatt, Antony (October 2022). "The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2022" (PDF). World Nuclear Report. Mycle Schneider Consulting. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 May 2023. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  5. 1 2 Chandler, Jo (19 March 2011). "Is this the end of the nuclear revival?". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 10 May 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
  6. 1 2 Belford, Aubrey (17 March 2011). "Indonesia to Continue Plans for Nuclear Power". New York Times. Archived from the original on 10 May 2020. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
  7. 1 2 Morgan, Piers; Krakauer, Steve (17 March 2011). "Israel Prime Minister Netanyahu: Japan situation has "caused me to reconsider" nuclear power". Piers Morgan Live. Archived from the original on 30 September 2019. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  8. 1 2 Xuequan, Mu, ed. (18 March 2011). "Israeli PM cancels plan to build nuclear plant". Xinhua. Archived from the original on 18 March 2011. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  9. 1 2 Dittmar, Michael (18 August 2010). "Taking stock of nuclear renaissance that never was". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 30 August 2017. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  10. ↑ "Nuclear power: When the steam clears". The Economist. 24 March 2011. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2025.
  11. ↑ Duroyan Fertl (5 June 2011). "Germany: Nuclear power to be phased out by 2022". Green Left. Archived from the original on 1 November 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2011.
  12. ↑ Mez, Lutz; Schneider, Mycle; Thomas, Steve (2009). "International perspectives on energy policy and the role of nuclear power". University of Greenwich. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  13. ↑ "2004 Survey of Energy Resources" (PDF). Survey of Energy Resources. World Energy Council. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2007. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
  14. ↑ Schneider, Mycle; Thomas, Steve; Froggatt, Antony; Koplow, Doug (August 2009). "The World Nuclear Industry Status Report" (PDF). German Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Reactor Safety. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  15. ↑ "Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2030" (PDF). Reference Data Series No. 1. International Atomic Energy Agency. September 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 March 2017. Retrieved 8 September 2008.
  16. ↑ "PRIS - Reactor status reports - Under Construction - By Country". pris.iaea.org. Archived from the original on 22 November 2018. Retrieved 23 October 2025.
  17. 1 2 Martin, Brian (2007). "Opposing nuclear power: past and present". Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  18. 1 2 "Nuclear renaissance faces realities". Platts. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
  19. ↑ "How Can Japan Compete in a Changing Global Market?". nbr.org. Archived from the original on 26 February 2018. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  20. ↑ Meeus, L.; Purchala, K.; Belmans, R. "Is it reliable to depend on import?" (PDF). Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Departement of Electrical Engineering of the Faculty of Engineering. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 13 July 2007. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  21. ↑ Welch, David (28 April 2022). "Angela Merkel's nuclear folly fuelled Putin's ambitions in Ukraine". Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 9 September 2022. Retrieved 9 September 2022.
  22. ↑ Babu, Juby (23 August 2022). "Germany's Uniper to restart coal-fired power plant as Gazprom halts supply to Europe". Reuters. Archived from the original on 9 September 2022. Retrieved 9 September 2022.
  23. ↑ Clifford, Catherine (6 September 2022). "Germany to keep two nuclear plants available as a backup and burn coal as it faces an energy crisis brought on by war and climate change". CNBC. Archived from the original on 9 September 2022. Retrieved 9 September 2022.
  24. ↑ "Olkiluoto pipe welding 'deficient', says regulator". World Nuclear News. 16 October 2009. Archived from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 8 June 2010.
  25. ↑ Kinnunen, Terhi (1 July 2010). "Finnish parliament agrees plans for two reactors". Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 2 July 2010.
  26. ↑ "Olkiluoto 3 delayed beyond 2014". World Nuclear News. 17 July 2012. Archived from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
  27. ↑ "Finland's Olkiluoto 3 nuclear plant delayed again". BBC. 16 July 2012. Archived from the original on 23 July 2012. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
  28. ↑ Mycle Schneider and Antony Froggatt (September–October 2012). "2011-2012 world nuclear industry status report". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 68 (5): 8–22. Bibcode:2012BuAtS..68e...8S. doi:10.1177/0096340212459126. S2CID 145136334. Archived from the original on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
  29. 1 2 Kanter, James (29 May 2009). "Is the Nuclear Renaissance Fizzling?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 January 2010. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  30. ↑ Kanter, James (28 May 2009). "Cost Overruns at Finland Reactor Hold Lessons". Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  31. ↑ Broomby, Rob (8 July 2009). "Nuclear dawn delayed in Finland". BBC News. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  32. ↑ "Nuclear Power in China". World Nuclear Association. January 2012. Archived from the original on 13 February 2012. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
  33. ↑ Diesendorf, Mark (2013). "Book review: Contesting the future of nuclear power" (PDF). Energy Policy. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
  34. ↑ "Nuclear Renaissance Threatened as Japan's Reactor Struggles". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 15 March 2011. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  35. ↑ Gordon, Julie (14 March 2011). "Analysis: Nuclear renaissance could fizzle after Japan quake". Reuters. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  36. ↑ Mason, Jeff; Dunham, Will (14 March 2011). "Japan nuclear woes cast shadow over U.S. energy policy". Reuters. Archived from the original on 10 August 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  37. ↑ Jelter, Jim (14 March 2011). "Nuclear winter?". MarketWatch. Archived from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  38. 1 2 "Will China's nuclear nerves fuel a boom in green energy? -". Channel 4 News. 17 March 2011. Archived from the original on 21 March 2011. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  39. ↑ "NEWS ANALYSIS: Japan crisis puts global nuclear expansion in doubt". Platts. 21 March 2011. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
  40. ↑ "Italy announces nuclear moratorium". World Nuclear News. 24 March 2011. Archived from the original on 29 September 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
  41. ↑ "Gauging the pressure". The Economist. 28 April 2011. Archived from the original on 31 August 2012. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
  42. ↑ Breidthardt, Annika (30 May 2011). "German government wants nuclear exit by 2022 at latest". Reuters. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016.
  43. ↑ "Siemens to quit nuclear industry". BBC News. 18 September 2011. Archived from the original on 31 March 2020. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
  44. ↑ "Italy Nuclear Referendum Results". 13 June 2011. Archived from the original on 25 March 2012.
  45. 1 2 Sokolski, Henry (28 November 2011). "Nuclear Power Goes Rogue". Newsweek. Archived from the original on 18 December 2012. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
  46. ↑ Inajima, Tsuyoshi & Okada, Yuji (28 October 2011). "Nuclear Promotion Dropped in Japan Energy Policy After Fukushima". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 28 December 2013. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
  47. ↑ Manuel Rodriguez, Carlos (4 November 2011). "Mexico Scraps Plans to Build 10 Nuclear Power Plants in Favor of Using Gas". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on 18 March 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
  48. ↑ "China freezes nuclear plant approvals". CNN. 16 March 2011. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
  49. ↑ "Nuclear Power in China". World Nuclear Association. Archived from the original on 13 December 2022. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
  50. ↑ Srivastava, Siddharth (27 October 2011). "India's Rising Nuclear Safety Concerns". Asia Sentinel. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
  51. ↑ "Issues Concerning Installation of new NPPs" (PDF). Government of India, Department of Atomic Energy. 21 March 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 August 2018. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  52. ↑ "Nuclear Power in Japan". World Nuclear Association. Archived from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
  53. ↑ "Nuclear Power in Belgium". World Nuclear Association. 9 December 2025. Archived from the original on 17 February 2026. Retrieved 15 July 2026.
  54. ↑ "Integrated life-cycle assessment of electricity sources - Figure 37" (PDF). UNECE. 2022. p. 50. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 July 2024. Retrieved 9 September 2022.
  55. ↑ "IPCC Working Group III – Mitigation of Climate Change, Annex III: Technology - specific cost and performance parameters - Table A.III.2 (Emissions of selected electricity supply technologies (gCO 2eq/kWh))" (PDF). IPCC. 2014. p. 1335. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 December 2018. Retrieved 14 December 2018.
  56. ↑ Kharecha, Pushker A.; Hansen, James E. (2013). "Prevented Mortality and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Historical and Projected Nuclear Power". Environmental Science & Technology. 47 (9): 4889–95. Bibcode:2013EnST...47.4889K. doi:10.1021/es3051197. hdl:2060/20140017100. PMID 23495839.
  57. ↑ Sovacool, Benjamin K.; Schmid, Patrick; Stirling, Andy; Walter, Goetz; MacKerron, Gordon (5 October 2020). "Differences in carbon emissions reduction between countries pursuing renewable electricity versus nuclear power". Nature Energy. 5 (11): 928–935. Bibcode:2020NatEn...5..928S. doi:10.1038/s41560-020-00696-3. S2CID 225107514.
  58. ↑ Fell, Harrison; Gilbert, Alexander; Jenkins, Jesse; Mildenberger, Matto (8 January 2021). "Reply to 'Differences in Carbon Emissions Reduction between Countries Pursuing Renewable Electricity Versus Nuclear Power,' by Sovacool Et Al. (2020)". SSRN. Elsevier. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3762762. S2CID 234183759. SSRN 3762762.
  59. ↑ Wagner, Friedrich (20 May 2021). "CO2 emissions of nuclear power and renewable energies: a statistical analysis of European and global data". The European Physical Journal Plus. 136 (5) 562. Bibcode:2021EPJP..136..562W. doi:10.1140/epjp/s13360-021-01508-7.
  60. ↑ "IPCC Fifth Assessment Report - WG3 Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). IPCC. 31 March 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
  61. ↑ "Special Report: Global Warming of 1.5°C Summary for Policymakers". IPCC. 2018. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
  62. ↑ "Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the 'do no significant harm' criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 ('Taxonomy Regulation')" (PDF). 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 12 September 2022. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Archived 16 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
  63. ↑ Abnett, Kate (7 July 2022). "EU parliament backs labelling gas and nuclear investments as green". Reuters. Archived from the original on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
  64. ↑ Kugelmass, Bret (22 January 2020). "Want to stop climate change? Embrace the nuclear option". USA TODAY. Archived from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
  65. ↑ "Carbon Free Energy". ARC Clean Energy. Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
  66. ↑ "Nuclear Energy". Open100. Archived from the original on 20 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
  67. ↑ "Advanced Nuclear Reactors (SMR) & TRISO Fuel". X-energy. Archived from the original on 5 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.

Further reading

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