Map

For other uses, see Map (disambiguation), Maps (disambiguation), and Mapping.

A map is a depiction of interrelationships, commonly spatial, between things within a space. A map may be annotated with text and graphics. Like any graphic, a map may be fixed to paper or other durable media, or may be displayed on a transitory medium such as a computer screen. Some maps change interactively. Although maps are commonly used to depict geographic elements, they may represent any space, real or fictional. The subject being mapped may be two-dimensional such as Earth's surface, three-dimensional such as Earth's interior, or from an abstract space of any dimension.

Maps of geographic territory have a very long tradition and have existed from ancient times. The word "map" comes from the medieval Latin: Mappa mundi, wherein mappa meant 'napkin' or 'cloth' and mundi 'of the world'. Thus, "map" became a shortened term referring to a flat representation of Earth's surface.

Definition and etymology

The word "map" first appeared in English around 1120 CE. It originated either from the Late Latin word mappa ('napkin, cloth') originating in Classical Latin, or from French mappemonde or Latin mappa mundi (both 'map of the world').

The meaning of the word "map" depends on the context. Within the realm of cartography, early definitions focused on representations of the Earth printed on paper, as in the 1938 definition by Erwin Raisz (in the first major book on Cartography in the English language) "a conventionalized picture of the Earth's pattern as seen from above, to which lettering is added for identification".

In the 1931 book Science and Sanity, Alfred Korzybski argued that "A map is not the territory it represents, but, if correct, it has a similar structure to the territory, which accounts for its usefulness." This view has been adopted by some cartographers to define a map as a model of reality. This shift in thinking reflects the broad view of scientific cartography being based on Euclidean geometry and Gaussian statistics. During the 1960s and early Quantitative revolution in geography, maps were a central topic of research. William Bunge explored the topic of cartography and maps in his book Theoretical Geography, where in a chapter titled "Metacartography" he defined maps as a subset of mathematics, emphasizing geometry and set theory.

In the late 20th century – following the advent of computers and interplanetary exploration – the cartographic community adopted broader definitions which included media other than paper, and depicting things other than the Earth, as in the brief 1976 definition by Arthur H. Robinson "a graphic representation of the milieu". A definition used within the discipline of cartography – created in 1987 by John Brian Harley and David Woodward – is "graphic representations that facilitate a spatial understanding of things, concepts, conditions, processes, or events in the human world".

Outside of cartography, "map" is used as an analogy or metaphor in a broad range of contexts. In the nineteenth century, the New English Dictionary (predecessor to the Oxford English Dictionary) included the definition "circumstantial account of a state of things." The Oxford English Dictionary, as of 2026, includes the primary definition (a representation of the Earth's surface) and also includes "a diagram or collection of data showing the spatial distribution of something or the relative positions of its components" and the figurative meaning "a conceputalization or mental representation of the structure, extent, or layout of an area of experience, field of study, or ideology".

History

Main article: History of cartography

Antiquity to 15th century

A world map based on Ptolemy's 2nd-century Geography.

Tabula Rogeriana, one of the most advanced early world maps, by Muhammad al-Idrisi, 1154 (north is down).

No one knows when or where humans created the first maps, but the desire to preserve and share geographic data is so fundamental to human nature, it is likely that maps were produced very early in human history. One of the earliest preserved maps is inscribed on a clay tablet, dated to 2300 BCE, and found in Nuzi within the Akkadian Empire (in modern Iraq). Egyptian maps on papyrus from 1300 BCE show the location of gold mines. A document from China dated 1020 BCE describes maps used for town planning purposes. An early Chinese map that is still preserved from about the 4th century BCE, which shows more sophistication than contemporary maps originating in Europe.

Around 490 BCE, Greek geographer Hecataeus created a map of his known world, encompassing the Mediterranean Sea and most of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. One of the most influential early maps was a map of the world prepared around 150 CE by the Greco-Roman geographer and scientist Ptolemy. Maps created by the Romans – in contrast to the Greek emphasis on science – were for political and administrative purposes: in 44 BCE Julius Caesar commissioned a map of the known world, which was prepared by Agrippa. The Romans also produced the Tabula Peutingeriana which diagrams most major roads of their empire. Like many modern transit maps, it is schematic in nature and is not drawn to scale.

A notable set of maps from the Islamic world was the Nuzhat al-Mushtaq ('The Book of Pleasant Journeys into Faraway Lands') – an atlas created by Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi in 1154, at the request of Norman King Roger II. Within Medieval Europe, a large number of mappamundi ('maps of the world') were created, and – as Christianity dominated much of medieval society – many of them incorporated religious themes. Scholars refer to some of these maps as T-O maps because the map depicted the Earth as a circular "O" shape, containing three continents (Europe, Asia, and Africa) separated by waters in a "T" shape.

Maps played a major role in the Age of Discovery. On his first voyage in 1492, Christopher Columbus carried a world map created by Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli. The map did not include the Americas, and it greatly underestimated the size of the Earth. Also in 1492, Martin Behaim created the Erdapfel ('Earth apple') – the first globe.

16th century to present

Gerardus Mercator created the influential Mercator projection in 1569.

Transit maps often use a schematic design that simplifies the routes. This map of the London underground is based on a 1933 map by Harry Beck.

In the 16th century, the accuracy of maps improved with the development of triangulation (initially described by Gemma Frisius in 1533) which improved older surveying techniques by using devices such as plane tables and theodolites to precisely measure angles between landmarks. During this era, cartographers advanced the study of map projections, notably Gerardus Mercator who created the Mercator projection in 1569 which proved valuable to navigators. Humanity's impulse to create maps was illustrated when Europeans encountered indigenous peoples in Central and South America and in Oceania: there they found maps already in use for navigation, administration, and commerce.

Cartographers can produce maps from photographs obtained with remote sensing technologies, such as the as Landsat 7 satellite shown in this artist's rendering.

The applications of cartography expanded in the late 17th century with the invention of thematic maps which portrayed a specific kind of data – such as rainfall or population density – in contrast to simply portraying major geographic features such as rivers, mountains, and cities. In the late 18th century, accuracy of maps increased dramatically with the perfection of clocks that could keep accurately time for extended periods while withstanding the violent motions of a ship and the temperature changes of different climates. These chronometers enabled longitude to be computed accurately at any point on Earth. The rise of nationalism in the 19th century was reinforced by maps, as noted by the French historian Christian Jacob who wrote that maps focused on individual nations were "the visual glue of a sense of national identity".

Military applications led to innovations in cartography. In the late 18th century, Napoleon created a corps of geographic engineers to produce topographic maps for military use. During WWI, cameras were mounted in airplanes which flew over battlefields and took photographs that were later analyzed for reconnaissance purposes. Some photos were used to update trench maps, at scales up to 1:10,000. After WW I, civilian cartographers used aerial photography in conjunction with the new science of photogrammetry to generate maps more rapidly than was possible with ground-based surveying. In the early 20th century, maps were widely used for propaganda purposes – both to promote territorial claims and to exaggerate threats from perceived enemies.

The rapid expansion of road networks and mass transit systems in the 20th century created a market for mass-produced maps aimed at the traveling public. Road maps and transit maps became commonplace, including the 1933 London underground map which used an innovative schematic design that was more useful than a geographically accurate layout. Cartography was revolutionized in the latter half of the 20th century, as computers and satellites enabled the new fields of computer cartography and remote sensing. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) allowed vast amounts of geographic data to be dynamically displayed on computer screens, so users could interactively zoom, pan, and choose which data to view.

Applications

Nautical charts – such as this one of the seas around Culebra – are essential tools for mariners.

Maps support a large variety of purposes and functions. Perhaps the most common applications of maps in everyday life relate to navigation and route planning. Maps are useful for finding nearby restaurants, hospitals, gas stations, hotels, parks, and other points of interest. People planning vacations or outings often rely on maps to identify destinations, using road maps and tourism-related maps. Commercial and recreational traffic in the air and water use maps (called "charts" in this context): airplane traffic relies on aeronautical charts and water traffic uses nautical charts.

Government-related applications include census, elections, administration, and property taxation. Local or regional governments use maps for urban planning purposes such as designing roads, public transportation, housing developments, and green spaces. Public and private utilities use maps for maintaining distribution systems for water, electricity, gas, telecommunications, and sewer. Emergency, fire, and police services use maps for evacuation planning, dispatching fire or police responders, and coordinating disaster relief. Cadastral maps are an essential tool for managing real property boundaries, which are required for monitoring construction progress, evaluating neighborhood needs and property values, zoning regulations.

Governments can also use maps to inform policy decisions about voting district boundaries, emergency planning, labor force analysis, utility service planning, planing social and education services, poverty analysis, marketing analysis, flood risk, and agriculture. Environmental protection and management is an area where maps are useful, including monitoring forests and wildlife habitats; monitoring climate change, floods, wildfires, and pollution. Foresters, ranchers and farmers can use maps to manage land and resources and manage forests.

Maps are used by military commanders to plan and monitor campaigns, and by historians to document the events. This map is of Operation Typhoon.

Military and security forces use maps for mission planning, surveillance, border management, and intelligence analysis. Politicians use maps to promote political agendas or propaganda: both within a nation or related to international disputes. In the commercial realm, maps are used for advertising or other persuasive purposes.

Scientists from many disciplines use maps to manage spatial data when studying a variety of subjects such as geology, weather, earthquakes, and population distribution. Maps help public health authorities track disease outbreaks, and scientists map genetic patterns in populations. Educators often use maps as tools when teaching geography, history, environmental science, and spatial thinking.

Journalists frequently use maps as part of their reporting to help audiences understand the geographic context of stories and events. Maps are sometimes considered to be things of beauty and displayed as artwork or home decorations, or incorporated as an element of a larger work of art.

Design

Further information: Cartographic design and Map layout

A cartographer must make many choices when designing a map, such as page layout, coverage area, orientation (which compass direction is up), scale, what data to include or – conversely – omit, projection, coordinate system, symbols, shapes, colors, labels, and typography. The choices depend on the purpose of the map and its intended audience.

An important aspect of map design is the layout, which involves arranging the geographic data as well as all auxiliary elements, such as the title, legend, map scale, and insets.

Coverage area

Maps can be created in a variety of shapes. A common shape is rectangular, but some polar maps are circular in shape. If a map is rendered on a rectangular 2-dimensional medium, the extent of its coverage will be roughly rectangular. However, when a map covers a large region, such as an entire continent, the coverage on the Earth's surface may not be a true rectangle. If a rectangular map displays coordinate data, its extent can be sometimes be defined by the four coordinate values of the four edges of the map.

Orientation

Further information: South-up map orientation

This top of this 1695 map of Utrecht, Netherlands, is slightly north of east.

This 1724 map of Charlottenburg, Germany, has east up.

A south up world map (1154) by Muhammad al-Idrisi

The orientation of a map is the geographical direction toward the top of the map. Modern maps generally orient maps north up. If a map has a non-north orientation (such as magnetic north up) the map will usually include a graphical indicator pointing north.

The earliest map with a known orientation is an Akkadian Empire clay tablet with an east up map, circa 2300 BCE. The orientation of ancient Egyptian maps is uncertain, but some may have been oriented south up.

In ancient and Middle Ages Europe, orientation varied, and many maps did not contain an explicit indication of their orientation. The archetypes of the Tabula Peutingeriana and Ptolemy's map probably were north up. Mappamundi were oriented in all four cardinal directions. Many T and O maps, were drawn with east at the top, but some displayed west or south up.

Polar maps of the Arctic or Antarctic regions are conventionally centered on the pole; the direction North would be toward or away from the center of the map, respectively. Typical maps of the Arctic have 0° meridian toward the bottom of the page; maps of the Antarctic have the 0° meridian toward the top of the page.

Although most modern government-produced maps are north up, some maps intended for recreational or tourism use will employ an unusual orientation if the feature being depicted is long and narrow. An example is this National Park Service map of the Blue Ridge Parkway, which is a 755 km (469 mi) long road that runs diagonally from southwest to northeast. The map's top is to the northeast.

Interactive maps displayed on an electronic visual display (such as a computer monitor or smart phone) often permit the user to rotate the map so any direction is up.

Scale

Main article: Scale (map)

Map scales

This large scale map has higher resolution and covers a smaller area. This is scan of a paper map printed with a scale of 1:24,000.

This small scale map has lower resolution and covers a larger area. The scale of this digital map varies within the map, but is roughly 1:4,000,000.

The scale of a map is a numerical value that indicates how measurements in the map relate to the reality they depict. Map scales are typically stated as a ratio, such as 1:12,000, which means that every centimeter (cm) on the map represents 12,000 cm (or 120 m) on the ground. Scales can be useful in many contexts, for example, a navigator can measure the distance between two points on a map, and multiply by the scale to obtain an approximate value of the distance between the two points in the world.

Maps can be classified as "small scale" (lower resolution, covering large areas) or "large scale" (higher resolution, covering small areas). Although there is no official dividing line between these two terms, 1:500,000 or 1:1,000,000 is sometimes used to partition those terms. In some contexts, a third term – "medium scale" – may be used for maps with scales ranging from about 1:250,000 to 1:1,000,000.

Because map projections introduce some distortion when the earth's surface is flattened onto paper, the scale of a map always varies through the map. For large scale maps that cover a small region, the variations of the scale are generally small, and the scale can often be treated as constant across the map. But for small scale maps that cover large areas like continents or the whole earth, the variations in scale can be large, and the scale should be treated as merely a nominal value.

The notion of scale is closely related to the concept of resolution, which is the granularity or precision with which XY locations are measured. For example, assuming one can resolve locations within half a millimeter on a paper map, that determines the map's resolution. Thus, a 1:10,000 scale map has a resolution of 5 m; and a 1:1,000,000 scale map has a resolution of 500 m. Conversely, a raster image of the earth with each pixel representing 2 km corresponds to a map scale of 1:4,000,000.

Map scales were originally used in the context of paper maps, where the ratio of map-to-reality has an unambiguous definition. But scales can also be applied to digital map databases. Since a database does not have a definitive paper representation, the scale is instead based on the resolution of the database's XY location values. The resolution of a database's XY locations reflects the amount of generalization or decluttering that has been applied to the objects in the database. For example, a database that contains features stored with a 5 m resolution could be considered to have a scale of 1:10,000. Although the geographic data in a database may be visualized at any magnification, it is best displayed at scales ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 times the scale suggested by the database's resolution.

Generalization

Main article: Cartographic generalization

Examples of the generalization process.

Generalization is the process of reducing the information content in a map so the map more effectively performs its intended purpose. The process for generalizing a particular map depends on the type of map, its scale, and its intended audience. Procedures performed during generalization include selection, simplification, exaggeration, aggregation, smoothing, elimination, and symbolization.

The process of generalization is functionally the same for both manually designed maps and interactive digital maps. However, generalization of interactive maps is partially automatically by software applications.

The first step in generalization is typically selection, which is simply choosing which types of features to include in the map. Depending on the purpose of the map, the mapmaker may omit, for example, roads, buildings, bodies of water, or towns with a population under 100,000..

Simplification is the process of simplifying a particular feature (such as a river, grove of trees, group of buildings, etc.) by eliminating detail. For example, a grove of eight distinct trees may be replaced by one tree; or a fence defined by 20 straight segments may be reduced to five segments. The degree of simplification depends on how many features should appear on the final map, and how densely they should be placed.

The process of exaggeration involves enlarging some aspect of an object to better convey the object's real-world essence. Aggregation is grouping several distinct objects together into one. Examples are grouping multiple point objects into one; or multiple point objects into an areal object; or multiple areal objects into one. Smoothing a line or perimeter involves replacing the line with a smoother version that captures the essence of the line while eliminating jagged, fine-scale features. Symbolization is the process of choosing a graphical depiction to represent each real-world object. Selecting the graphical attributes of the depictions – including shape, color, size, and pattern – is an important part of the symbolization process.

Symbols

Main article: Map symbol

These pictograms used in maps of the US National Park Service are a kind of map symbol.

Maps visually depict the location and properties of some geographic features using map symbols, which are graphical depictions composed of several visual variables, such as size, shape, color, and pattern.

The various features shown on a map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads. Those signs are usually explained in a map legend on the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet.

Projection

Main article: Map projection

The distortion of a projection can be visualized with Tissot's indicatrix.

A projection is an algorithm that transforms all or part of the Earth's surface into a 2-dimensional representation. There are dozens of projections that mapmakers may choose from when creating a map. All projections introduce some distortions into the representation because it is impossible to force a spheroidal surface into a flat shape without tearing or stretching it.

Some projections preserve important characteristics of the spheroidal surface. Equal-area projections preserve the areas of countries or regions. Conformal projections preserve the angles between intersecting lines, and give the impression that shapes are approximately preserved. Equidistant projections preserve distances between one or two specific points to all other points. Some projections – called compromise projections – try to balance multiple goals, without perfectly achieving any one of them; a notable example is the Robinson projection.

Projections commonly used for maps of the whole earth include Goode homolosine projection, Mercator, and Robinson. For maps that cover large parts of the globe (but not the full globe) common projections include Lambert azimuthal and Miller cylindrical.

• Some projections of the Earth
• 
  Interrupted Goode homolosine
• 
  Miller cylindrical
• 
  Robinson
• 
  Van der Grinten

A controversial projection is Web Mercator – a variant of the standard Mercator projection – which was adopted by Google around 2005 for use in their online zoomable global map. The projection has been criticized for its large distortions in the higher latitudes, as well as for inaccuracies in coordinates when zoomed-in.

Coordinate syatem

Further information: Geodetic datum

Maps that display elevations of land or objects must use a vertical datum as the baseline for that measurement. Ellipsoids, such as the one shown, can be used as a vertical datum.

When a map displays coordinates of places and objects, the mapmaker must select a coordinate system, called the geodetic datum. Typically, one coordinate system (called the horizontal datum) is used for horizontal (XY) coordinates, and another (called the vertical datum) for elevation (Z) coordinates.

The horizontal coordinates – especially for maps covering large regions of the earth – are often latitude and longitude. There are several horizontal datums can be used, including WGS84 and, in the US, NAD83. Instead of latitude/longitude, some coordinate systems use an XY (called "Cartesian") system for horizontal coordinates. These are called "projected coordinate systems"; a common one is Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM). For example, the XY location of the CN Tower in Canada can be specified as latitude/longitude 43°38′33.24″N 79°23′13.7″W (relative to WGS84); or alternatively in a UTM coordinates as 630,084 meters east, 4,833,438 meters north (in Zone 17N). Maps used for military applications often use UTM coordinates, because it is global system in which angles are accurately represented and XY locations are measured in meters, which may be more convenient than degrees.

Vertical datums are baselines used to measure an object's Z location (height). Vertical datums include ellipsoids and the geoid. An ellipsoid, such as WGS84, is an imaginary spheroid that approximates the earth's surface. A geoid is shape the world's oceans would take under the influence of Earth's gravity and rotation alone, without winds or tides; the geoid is not a smooth spheroid, but has bumps due to the way earth's varying density influences gravity.

Many nations have national mapping agencies that define projected coordinate systems to be used for maps that cover the country. These coordinate systems usually use an XY Cartesian system for horizontal locations (rather than latitude/longitude). Thus, horizontal locations are typcially measured in meters (or, in US, feet). A nation may have many such coordinate systems, each tailored for a specific province, state, or region. For example, the US defines 125 coordinate systems that cover the country, called the "state plane" systems.

Colors and patterns

Use of colors in maps

This map uses both color (hue) and pattern (hatching) to distinguish regions.

This thematic map uses a single hue and varies the lightness to distinguish regions.

Colors can play an important role in map design. A map produced with a single color can confuse readers since every line and object is the same color; even a small amount of color can significantly improve the readability of map. Any color may be characterized by a particular combination of three independent attributes: hue, lightness, and saturation. Of those attributes, hue is generally used to indicate important distinctions within a map. Some maps use hue conventions such as: blue for water; green for vegetation; yellow or tan for arid regions; and brown for topographic contour lines. Lightness or tint can also be used to distinguish features in a map, particularly for progressively coloring regions in a quantitative map.

In maps, patterns are repeating design motifs that fill areas and convey information to the user. The patterns may consist of lines, dots, pictographs, or hatching. For example, patterns may be used to distinguish biomes such as swamp, desert, or forest. The International Geographical Union published a set of patterns to be utilized to designate soil types, including patterns for mud, clay, sandstone, and gravel. Colors and patterns may be used in combination within a single area.

Typography and labels

Further information: Typography (cartography)

This map from a 1919 book on lettering provides guidance on placing hand-written text on a map.

Many maps include textual labels that identify features. The design and layout of the text has a major influence on the overall graphical quality of the map. Maps often use multiple fonts and typefaces on a map in order to convey information to the user. For example, a map may use italic, boldface, or various sizes of lettering to indicate water features vs land features, or to designate the size of city or town. Positioning textual labels in a manner that is helpful and attractive is a difficult, but important process. Positioning can be performed manually by a cartographer, or automatically by software algorithms. Positioning guidelines that are sometimes used include:

• Text should be aligned horizontally, although in large maps covering the whole earth or large regions (called "small scale" maps), the text may instead be aligned along lines of latitude is acceptable
• Text should generally be in a straight line, not curved. Exception: when aligning text along lines of latitude on a small-scale map
• Spacing between letters should generally be tight
• When text and graphical objects (such as lines) interfere, the text has priority and the graphic should be interrupted
• A name should be entirely on land or on water, but not straddle both
• Labels of point features should be offset in a consistent manner, for example, above and slightly to the side of the feature

Auxiliary elements

This map positions the legend in the lower-left; the publisher, title, and scale bar in the upper left; and four insets on the right.

Mythical creatures were sometimes depicted in maps, such as this sea serpent (lower right) in the Carta marina (1539).

Maps often contain a variety of elements or marginalia that supplement the primary geographical imagery. A map scale is often indicated on a map, either textually or as a graphical scale bar. Many maps, particularly if their orientation is not north up, include an orientation indicator which points north.. Titles are displayed in many maps, although some maps do not need a title and omit it.

Legends are a critical component of many maps, because they provide the user with essential keys to understanding the map. Legends define graphical symbols and can explain the origin, context, and meaning of the map's thematic data.

Some maps contain smaller maps, called "insets". The insets can serve a variety of purposes, such as showing the location of the primary map in global context or to show high-detail maps of points-of-interest; or to show islands that are relevant to the primary map, but far away.

A cartouche is a ornamental symbol – sometimes very elaborate – found on some maps which contains map marginalia such as the title or author's name. Some globes display an analemma – a figure-eight shaped line – that shows the locations on the earth where the sun is directly overhead throughout the year.

Maps in antiquity sometimes displayed creatures such as sea serpents, mermaids, satyrs, sirens, dog-headed people, and centaurs. Dragons were sometimes included, leading to the phrase "here be dragons" to designate terra incognita or particularly remote areas.

Types

Maps can be classified in a variety of ways. The Applications section above describes classifications based on purpose, including geological maps, road maps, or cadastral maps. The Design section above lists classifications based on design attributes such as south-up maps, 1:10,000 scale maps, or Mercator projection maps. All other classifications (that is, those not related to application or design) are discussed in this section, including map kinds such as thematic maps, topographic maps, digital maps, and topological maps.

Thematic and general reference

Thematic maps: quantitative and qualitative

This quantitative map of Poland shows the population density.

This qualitative map divides Australia in to discrete climate zones.

A thematic map is a special purpose map that depicts a single kind of information. Examples include precipitation maps, population density maps, and pollution maps. In contrast to thematic maps, general reference maps display a variety of information about a region, such as cities, highways, railways, and bodies of water. Many maps have characteristics of both thematic maps and general reference maps, so these two map kinds are not mutually exclusive.

Quantitative and qualitative

Some maps may be classified as quantitative or qualitative. A quantitative map displays the magnitude of a single numerical datum, such as air pressure, population density, or poverty rate. A qualitative map depicts data that can be categorized as two or more kinds, such as a climate map that divides the region into 15 different climate zones; or a map that divides the region based on 20 different religious affiliations. Kenneth Field limits the quantitative/qualitative distinction to thematic maps, but others apply the distinction to any maps that display numerical or statistical data.

Classified by medium

Maps can be classified by the medium in which the are presented, such as paper map, atlas, globe, or digital. Prior to the 21st century, the vast majority of maps were printed on paper. An atlas is collection of maps, usually bound in book form. Globes are 3-dimensional models of the earth (or moon or another planet). A digital map is a map stored in digital form and typically displayed on an electronic visual display such as a computer monitor or smart phone. The electronic display may depict a 2-dimensional map (for example, Google Map or Apple Maps apps), or a 3-dimensional globe (such as Google Earth app).

• 
  An atlas is a collection of maps, usually in book form.
• 
  The Babson Globe is 8.5 meters in diameter and weighs 25.4 tonnes.
• 
  Digital maps are often displayed on smart phones.

Extraterrestrial

Geological map of the Moon

Further information: Selenography

Maps of planets, moons, asteroids, and comet nuclei have been created by astronomers since telescopes were invented. Early extraterrestrial maps were drawn for objects that are relatively large when viewed in a telescope, such as Mercury, Mars, and the Moon. Maps of the Moon played an important role in the space race during the 1960s and 1970s, including the Apollo program which landed the first humans on the Moon. Some extraterrestrial objects – such as the Sun and gas planets like Jupiter – do not have solid surfaces. Despite that, they have been mapped to depict their appearance at certain points in time. Some asteroids and comet nuclei have shapes that are so irregular that conventional map projections (designed for spheroidal objects) are not sufficient. Maps for these objects required the invention of novel map projections.

Topological

Main article: Topological map

Maps of London Underground

This topological map emphasizes understandability

This conventional map emphasizes accurate geography

A topological map is map that emphasizes graphical simplicity, and makes little or no effort to accurately represent geographical distances or locations. The term "topological" emphasizes that these maps retain topological relationships in the mathematical sense; thus, all connections between objects are preserved.

Topological maps are sometimes called "schematic maps" because of their diagrammatic nature: their graphical depictions promote comprehension by sacrificing geographic accuracy.

An early schematic map was Tabula Peutingeriana (archetype 4th century) – a visual itinerarium that aided travelers by depicting roads and towns, while disregarding geographic accuracy. A notable modern topological map is the official London Underground map. Some cartograms may be considered to be topological maps because they deliberately distort regions so the area of each region represents the value of some data: geographic accuracy is sacrificed to improve comprehension (a sample cartogram is shown below).

Topographic and planimetric

This topographic map displays elevation data as brown contour lines, buildings as black rectangles, forests as green-colored regions, and rivers in blue.

Topographic maps include vertical position (height) of the ground and other objects. The height – often expressed as elevation above sea level – can be displayed in a variety of ways, including topographic contour lines, or relief shading..

Planimetric maps – in contrast to topographic maps – do not include height information; rather, they display horizontal location information only.

Many topographic maps are general reference maps, because – in addition to elevation – they may display a variety of features such as buildings, bodies of water, vegetation, roads, towns, and railways. Some national mapping agencies produce topographic maps of their country's lands – including the UK's Ordnance Survey and the US's USGS. Many government produced maps are fairly detailed (large scale). Some nations produce two or more series of topographic maps, each at a unique scale. For example, in the UK, topographic maps are produced at four scales: 1:1,250 (urban areas), 1:2,500 (rural areas), 1:10,000 (mountain and moorland areas), and 1:50,000 (the baseline series).

Interactive

Further information: Web mapping and Geographic information system software

The GeoNames web app lets users interactively view and manipulate maps.

This interactive map of postal codes uses geographic data from OpenStreetMap.

The invention of computers in the latter part of the 20th century led to a new kind of map: interactive maps which dynamically display geographic data on an electronic visual display. These maps permit a user to view and explore the data by directly interacting with the map. The interactions may permit users to select which kinds of features to display, obtain details about individual objects, zoom in and out, and adjust the map scale. These manipulations of content or appearance are in contrast to the limited interactions available with a paper map. Interactive maps can also display all or part of the earth as a globe, with no map projection applied.

Interactive maps are often used, especially on mobile devices, to provide location-based services to users, such as providing navigation directions.

Photomap

This orthophotomap of Spain is overlaid with elevation contour lines, drawn in white.

A orthophotomap of the United States. Colored graphics on the coast represent various attributes of the coast.

A photomap is a georeferenced image that has graphics overlaid to make it useable as a map. The image may be augmented with graphics such as grid lines, scale information, contour lines, place names, and a legend.

When an image has been orthorectified to remove all distortion due to terrain relief, it is called an orthophoto, and when supplemented with graphics to be suitable as map, it is an orthophotomap.

Cartographic data

Further information: Geographic information system

To create a new map, a cartographer must obtain this geographic data and assemble it. Geographic data used for mapmaking may include:

• Imagery or photos from airplanes or satellites
• Rectified imagery
• Existing maps
• Surveying data
• Geographical features (buildings, roads, railways, water features, etc) usually in vector format
• Terrain (elevation) data
• Miscellaneous information (notes, metadata, accuracy, etc)

In some cases, a cartographer is able to find all the necessary data in existing databases. In other cases, the mapmaker must collect new data: this may involve obtaining new imagery, finding existing maps and scanning them into a database, or extracting feature or terrain data from existing imagery or maps.

Cartographic data can be used – in addition to creating new maps – to revise existing maps. For instance, recent satellite imagery can be overlaid on an existing map and the cartographer can visually determine if any roads or buildings have been added or changed.

Cartographic databases

Main article: Geographic information system

Modern cartographers store cartographic data in databases. A database that is dedicated to storing data suited for mapmaking is called a cartographic database. Another type of database that contains cartographic data is a geographic information systems (GIS). GISs are computer systems that store and analyze geographic data. GISs contain a wide variety of data to perform many different applications, including real estate, engineering, architecture, ubban planning, logistics, environmental protection, transport, and logistics. Not all data in a GIS is suitable for use in mapmaking: only data that is georeferenced is suitable for use in mapping.

Imagery and remote sensing

Further information: Aerial photography, Aerial reconnaissance, Satellite imagery, and Remote sensing

An important source of cartographic data is imagery, including satellite imagery and aerial photos taken from cameras mounted in aircraft. Remote sensing can collect data from various signals: the electromagnetic spectrum (visual light, infrared, microwave, and radar); as well as LIDAR and SONAR reflections. Some imagery is multispectral or hyperspectral; multiple spectral bands enable software to extract useful information about vegetation, crops, geology, climate, and structures.. Imagery can be used in several ways:

• To locate and extract vector data such as transportation systems, buildings, and other features
• To generate raster data (from analyzing attributes of the imagery) such as terrain steepness, crop or vegetation types, land-use, deforestation, emergency planning, or geology.
• As a background basemap of a map

Imagery can supplant traditional surveying in many cases. Provided that the imagery has been properly georeferenced, it can be used to extract precise geographic coordinate values for any identifiable objects in the image.

Georeferencing

Main article: Georeferencing

The drawing on the left can be georeferenced by finding corresponding points (numbered 1 to 8) in an already georeferenced map (right).

All geographic data used by a mapmaker should have accurate geographic coordinates, including the identity of the horizontal datum and vertical datum of the coordinates. Data with accurate coordinates is called "georeferenced". If the coordinates are inaccurate, or if the datum identities are not provided, the geographic features cannot be used in the map because it would be displayed in the wrong location in the map.

A mapmaker may be able to use data that is not georeferenced by performing a georeferencing procedure. For example, If the cartographer has feature data (roads, buildings, etc) that is not georeferenced, they can employ a surveying crew to visit the feature and use GNSS technologies to obtain accurate coordinates of the feature location..

Rectified imagery

Further information: Orthophoto and Image rectification

An aerial photo (right) must be orthorectified before it can be used in a map. The process – which requires a terrain database – will remove all artifacts related to tilting, foreshortening or terrain relief (left).

The buildings in this orthophoto appear tilted because the cartographer did not use 3D models of the buildings to rectify the structures.

Imagery must be georeferenced before it can be used for cartographic purposes. Georeferencing an image is called rectification. Rectification will generate a new image that removes any tilt, so the new image is as if the camera were looking straight down. Typically, rectification requires locating small, identifiable points in the photo (such as street intersections, or small landmarks) that have a known geographic location (which may be known from traditional surveying; or from satellite navigation measurement; or from a map or orthophoto that has been georeferenced.

To use imagery (such as photos from a plane or satellite) as a basemap (background) of a map, any distortion in the imagery due to the earth's terrain must also be removed. That process is called orthorectification. Orthorectification requires accurate digital terrain data covering the region. With the terrain data, most aerial photos can be manipulated so they present the view as if the viewer were directly above, looking straight down. Such orthorectified images are suitable for use in a map, and will properly align with other geographic elements in the map.

Rectifying an image to compensate for terrain requires elevation data, but rectifying features (such as buildings or towers) so they appear "straight up" requires a 3-dimensional model of the features. If feature models are not available, the rectification can proceed with terrain alone, but structures will appear to lean or tilt in the rectified image.

Some imagery may already be orthorectified: For example, a screen capture from Google maps is generally orthorectified, but a photograph taken from an airplane or the International Space Station will not be.

After images have been orthorectified, two or more can be merged into a larger orthophotomosaic. An orthophoto (or orthophotomosaic) can be used as a map, or as the background (basemap) of a map – in those contexts, it is called a orthophotomap.

Accuracy

Terminology

Accuracy and precision have distinct meanings in cartography: accuracy is an estimate of error between an object's location presented in the map and its true location. Precision (or resolution) is the granularity of location values in the map (disregarding the true value). Some cartographers stipulate that the precision of a map is the real-world distance represented by half a millimeter (on a paper map) or by half a pixel (in raster imagery).

A related term is "detectable size" which is the width of the smallest discernible feature in a map, generally considered to be twice the resolution. Tobler's Rule states that the detectable size (in meters) times 1000 is equal to the map scale.

Accuracy data

For some cartographic applications (for example, military targeting purposes) it is essential that the geographic data be georeferenced, but it is also critical to have an estimate of the spatial accuracy (for example, are feature locations in the map accurate to 1 meter? 10 meters? 100 meters?). The error magnitude can increase each time that geographic data is processed, manipulated, or converted (such as converted from on coordinate system to another). GIS data used for critical applications will usually include error estimates for all important data. Ideally, the accuracy of data and features in a map is communicated to the user of the map, for example, in the map legend.

Interactive maps may provide the ability for users to update or add to shared geographic data, as a form of crowdsourcing. The accuracy of crowd-sourced data may be poor, as it may not be subject to quality assurance reviews.

Attributes and metadata

When fetching data to use in map, any attributes or metadata associated with the geographic information may be useful in the map. Attributes typically indicate the year the data was collected, identification numbers, geographic datum, error estimates, the origin or source of the data, and any miscellaneous notes. Attributes can be used, for example, to supply annotations for the map or notes in the map's legend.

Searching and indexing

Further information: Spatial database

To efficiently locate geographic data in a database, special technologies may be used, such as an R-tree index (shown).

Cartographic data may be roughly grouped into three categories: spatial, temporal, and attributes (which includes all other information about features or terrain, including metadata). Depending on the nature of the map being created, a cartographer may limit data searches on one or more of those data categories. For example, a mapmaker could query a geographic database and ask for railway data covering Sri Lanka in 1990 including the track gauge of each railway segment.

When preparing a map, it may be difficult to locate relevant data within a GIS, especially if the GIS contains vast amount of information. GIS's can help with that process if they contain indexes which support efficient retrieval, searching, and sorting. Indexes to search and sort geographic data (that is, spatial data) require special computer technologies, because spatial data is not comparable to simple numerical or textual data.

Raster and vector data

Further information: Data_model_(GIS)

Geographical data that models the real world is often stored in one of two forms: raster data or vector data. Imagery is common stored in a raster format, but linear or areal features (such as roadways, boundaries, or building outlines) are typically stored as vector data. In many cases, the data get transformed from one form to the other for analysis. GIS apps provide algorithms that automatically detect lines, edges, and boundaries within imagery and generate vector data that roughly delineates roads, buildings, and other linear or areal objects.

Spatial relationships between nearby objects can be explicitly stored with the objects' vector data in a database. This topological data can encode whether two features overlap, one is inside another, they share a boundary line, or if they are connected, as well as hierarchical relationships such as which road segments make up a particular roadway. Vector data stored without topological relationships is sometimes disparagingly referred to as "spaghetti data".

Terrain data is commonly stored in a raster format, although it may also be stored as a triangular irregular network. Terrain data, by itself, can be used by cartographers to derive important geographic information such as elevation contour lines, drainage basins, line-of-sight, drainage divides, viewsheds, volume of filled depressions, and water flow paths.

Production, publication, and distribution

Notable map publishers of paper maps include SinoMaps Press (China), Rand McNally (US), National Geographic Maps (global), and Michelin (Europe).

After a map is created, the process of publishing the map begins. For hardcopy (paper) maps, a printing facility must be used to produce copies. For digital dissemination, a format and platform must be selected. These may include web sites, file downloads, or sharing via online map databases such as OpenStreetMaps. The choice of distribution platform may determine whether a large number of data may be included in a map (which may be feasible if the platform supports data filtering); or if multiple map products must be separately published (one per data type). Metadata or notes may need to be prepared, if users will need additional guidance to properly use the map. The metadata can be included in the map (for example, as a legend) or in supplemental files. Copyright and licensing policies should be established. Legal disclaimers (related to potential errors in data) may be needed, if liability is a concern. Publicity, advertising, and outreach can help increase the size of the audience that the map reaches.

The publisher may choose to host the map data on their own server, or use a commercial server.

Profession and regulation

Professional and governmental organizations

Cartographers have organized several professional associations that seek to promote the advancement and dissemination of knowledge by hosting conferences and publishing journals. A leading group is the International Cartographic Association which publishes the International Journal of Cartography and The Cartographic Journal. Other organizations include the International Geographical Union, National Geographic Society, and Royal Geographical Society. Another major group is the International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. In additional to professional organizations, most nations maintain agencies or departments that are responsible for producing maps, such as Geoscience Australia and Japan's Geospatial Information Authority. Production standards for navigational charts are coordinated by the International Hydrographic Organization (nautical charts) and the International Civil Aviation Organization (aeronautical charts).

Quality and accuracy standards

Official maps produced by government agencies are sometimes regulated to ensure accuracy, consistency, and conformity. Although there are no international regulations that dictate map accuracy or symbology, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has published standards such as Geographic information – Metadata and Geographic information Metadata XML schema implementation which establish standards for sharing geospatial data.

Society and culture

Bias and disinformation

Main article: Cartographic propaganda

This cartogram was published in 1916 to emphasize the size and extent of the British Empire. The area of each country is proportional to its population.

The Mercator projection greatly distorts the size of certain countries.

All maps are selective representations of reality and cannot depict it with complete accuracy. As a result, every map contains some degree of inaccuracy, distortion, or omission. In some cases, these inaccuracies are introduced intentionally; in other cases, they are an inherent consequence of the fact that maps simplify and symbolize reality. Situations where mapmakers deliberately try to mislead the audience include advertising, development planning, military disinformation campaigns, and political propaganda. Cartographer Mark Monmonier suggests that all maps should be treated with a "healthy skepticism" because they reflect editorial and content choices made by their creators.

Some map projections can significantly misrepresent the relative size of countries, particularly in world maps. In the 1970s, the historian Arno Peters asserted that the widespread use of the Mercator projection was "cartographic imperialism", as it showed European countries relatively enlarged compared to developing countries – especially in Africa – nearer to the equator. Arno presented the Gall-Peters projection – an equal-area projection – as a more equitable alternative.

In 1985 politician Shridath Ramphal appealed to geographers to combat bias implicit in maps, particularly related to the north up orientation and the implication that northern countries are superior.

An example of misinformation that is deliberately inserted into a map is a copyright trap, which is a fictional object or place inserted into a map (in an unobtrusive manner) by the mapmaker, that will help them detect unauthorized copies.

Boundary disputes

Maps can play a role in boundary disputes between nations; as tools for a nation to advocate for their claim, and as evidence in negotiations.

With the advent of interactive online maps, countries involved in disputes will often instruct data providers, such as Google Maps, to display a particular boundary line. Google Maps has responded to such demands by storing two versions of the disputed boundary, and choosing the version to display based on the location of the requestor. Examples of boundary disputes that have led nations to instruct map providers to display a particular boundary line include: Russia and Ukraine, India and China, Pakistan and India, Turkey and the cultural region of Kurdistan, Cambodia and Thailand, and Vietnam and China's maritime boundary dispute in the South China Sea.

Fantasy maps

Main article: Fantasy cartography

Some maps are created which depict imaginary regions or worlds. Examples include maps of Treasure Island in the 1883 novel by Robert Louis Stevenson, maps of Oz from the Wizard of Oz book series (1900 to 1920) by L. Frank Baum, and maps of Middle Earth in The Lord of the Rings (1937 to 1949) by J. R. R. Tolkien. A survey of 200 fantasy books in 2013 found that 34% contained a map.

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